# 人種的差別撤廃提案:Proposal to abolish racial discrimination

<span>The</span><span> </span>**Racial Equality Proposal**<span> </span><span>(</span>[<span>Japanese</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language "Japanese language")<span>:</span><span> 人種的差別撤廃提案</span><span>; lit. "Proposal to abolish racial discrimination")</span><span> </span><span>was an amendment to the</span><span> </span>[Treaty of Versailles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles")<span> </span><span>that was considered at the 1919</span><span> </span>[Paris Peace Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919 "Paris Peace Conference, 1919")<span>.</span>

# Wilson Violation of Democratic Voting

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">The </span>**Racial Equality Proposal**<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (</span>[Japanese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language "Japanese language")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">: 人種的差別撤廃提案; lit. "Proposal to abolish racial discrimination") was an amendment to the </span>[Treaty of Versailles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> that was considered at the 1919 </span>[Paris Peace Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919 "Paris Peace Conference, 1919").

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">Though it was broadly supported, the proposal did not become part of the treaty, largely because of opposition by the </span>[United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> and the </span>[dominions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion "Dominion")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> of the </span>[British Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> Delegation, namely </span>[Australia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia "Australia")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, </span>[Canada](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada "Canada")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> and </span>[New Zealand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_New_Zealand "Dominion of New Zealand").[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[1\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-1)

<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">After the end of</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[seclusion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakoku "Sakoku")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">in the 1850s, Japan signed</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[unequal treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unequal_treaty "Unequal treaty")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, the so-called</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Ansei Treaties](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansei_Treaties "Ansei Treaties")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, but soon came to demand equal status with the Western powers. Correcting that inequality became the most urgent international issue of the Meiji government. In that context, the Japanese delegation to the Paris peace conference proposed the clause in the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Covenant of the League of Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations "Covenant of the League of Nations")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">. The first draft was presented to the League of Nations Commission on 13 February as an amendment to Article 21:</span>

> <span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">The equality of nations being a basic principle of the League of Nations, the High Contracting Parties agree to accord as soon as possible to all alien nationals of states, members of the League, equal and just treatment in every respect making no distinction, either in law or in fact, on account of their race or nationality.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">In a speech, the Japanese diplomat</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Makino Nobuaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makino_Nobuaki "Makino Nobuaki")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">stated that during the war men of different races had fought together on the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Allied](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I "Allies of World War I")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">side, leading to say: "A common bond of sympathy and gratitude has been established to an extent never before experienced."</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[8\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003318-8)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">The Japanese delegation had not realized the full ramifications of their proposal since its adoption would have challenged aspects of the established norms of the day's Western-dominated international system, which involved the colonial rule over non-white people. The intention of the Japanese was to secure equality of their nationals and the equality for members of the League of Nations,</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[9\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShimazu1998114-9)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">but a universalist meaning and implication of the proposal became attached to it within the delegation, which drove its contentiousness at the conference.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[10\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShimazu1998115-10)

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">After Makino's speech, </span>[Lord Cecil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cecil,_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood "Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> stated that the Japanese proposal was a very controversial one and he suggested that perhaps the matter was so controversial that it should not be discussed at all.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[8\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003318-8)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> Greek Prime Minister </span>[Eleftherios Venizelos](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos "Eleftherios Venizelos")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> also suggested that a clause banning religious discrimination should also be removed since that was also a very controversial matter.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[8\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003318-8)

Cecil removed all references to clauses that forbade racial and religious discrimination from the text of the peace treaty, but the Japanese made it clear that they would seek to have the clause restored.[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[8\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003318-8)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> By then, the clause was beginning to draw widespread public attention. Demonstrations in Japan demanded the end of the "badge of shame" as policies to exclude Japanese immigration in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand received much attention in the Japanese media.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[8\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003318-8)

In the United States, the clause received much negative media coverage on the West Coast.[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[8\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003318-8)

[Makino Nobuaki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makino_Nobuaki "Makino Nobuaki")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, the career diplomat who headed the Japanese delegation, then announced at a press conference: "We are not too proud to fight but we are too proud to accept a place of admitted inferiority in dealing with one or more of the associated nations. We want nothing but simple justice."</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[13\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-PaulGordonLauren1988p90a-13)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">France declared its support for the proposal since the French position had always been that the French language and culture was a "civilizing" force open to all regardless of skin color.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[12\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003319-12)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">British Prime Minister</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[David Lloyd George](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lloyd_George "David Lloyd George")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">found himself in an awkward situation since Britain had signed an alliance with Japan in 1902, but he also wanted to hold the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[British Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">'s delegation together.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[12\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003319-12)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">South African Prime Minister General</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Jan Smuts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Smuts "Jan Smuts")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">and Canadian Prime Minister Sir</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Robert Borden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Borden "Robert Borden")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">tried to work out a compromise by visiting Makino and</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Chinda Sutemi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinda_Sutemi "Chinda Sutemi")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">and Hughes, serving as mediators.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[12\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003319-12)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Borden and Smuts were able to arrange a meeting between Makino, Chinda, and Hughes, which ended badly. The Japanese diplomats wrote that Hughes was a vulgar "peasant" who was loud and obnoxious, and Hughes complained that the Japanese had been "beslobbering me with genuflexions and obsequious deference."</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[12\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003319-12)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">However, Borden and Smuts were able to persuade Hughes to accept the clause if it was declared that it did not affect immigration.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[12\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003319-12)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Makino and Chinda then rejected the compromise.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[12\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacMillan2003319-12)

On April 11, 1919, the commission held a final session.[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[14\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauren198890-14)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> Makino stated the Japanese plea for human rights and racial equality.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[15\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauren198891-15)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> The British representative Robert Cecil spoke for the British Empire and addressed opposition to the proposal.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[16\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauren198891%E2%80%9392-16)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Italian Prime Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Prime_Minister "Italian Prime Minister")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Vittorio Orlando](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vittorio_Orlando "Vittorio Orlando")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> spoke in favor of the statement on </span>[human rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights").[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[17\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauren198892-17)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[French Senator](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_France "Senate of France")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Léon Bourgeois](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Bourgeois "Léon Bourgeois")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> urged its adoption and stated that it would be impossible to reject the proposal, which embodied "an indisputable principle of justice."</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[18\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-PaulGordonLauren1988p92b-18)

#### Vote

The proposal received a majority vote on the day,[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[14\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauren198890-14)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> with 11 of the 17 delegates present voted in favor of its amendment to the charter, and no negative vote was taken:</span>

- [Japan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan "Empire of Japan")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (2) Yes</span>
- [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republic "French Third Republic")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (2) Yes</span>
- [Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy "Kingdom of Italy")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (2) Yes</span>
- [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Brazilian_Republic "First Brazilian Republic")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (1) Yes</span>
- [China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949) "Republic of China (1912–1949)")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (1) Yes</span>
- [Greece](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece "Kingdom of Greece")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (1) Yes</span>
- [Serbia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia "Kingdom of Serbia")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (1) Yes</span>
- [Czechoslovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (1) Yes</span>

Total: 11 Yes

- [British Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (2) – Not Registered</span>
- [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (2) – Not Registered</span>
- [Portugal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Portuguese_Republic "First Portuguese Republic")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (1) – Not Registered</span>
- [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Romania "Kingdom of Romania")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (1) – Not Registered</span>
- [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire "Belgian colonial empire")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (2) – Absent</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[19\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShimazu199830%E2%80%9331-19)

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">The chairman, </span>[Woodrow Wilson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson"), overturned it by saying that although the proposal had been approved by a clear majority, the particular matter had strong opposition manifest itself (despite the lack of any actual votes against the proposal[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[19\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShimazu199830%E2%80%9331-19)) and that on this issue, a unanimous vote would be required.[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[20\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTETemperley1924352-20)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> French delegate </span>[Ferdinand Larnaude](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ferdinand_Larnaude&action=edit&redlink=1 "Ferdinand Larnaude (page does not exist)")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> \[</span>[la](https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinandus_Larnaude "la:Ferdinandus Larnaude")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">; </span>[sv](https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_Larnaude "sv:Fernand Larnaude")\] immediately stated that "a majority had voted for the amendment."[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[21\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-PaulGordonLauren1988p93-21)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> Meanwhile, the Japanese delegation wanted the transcript to show that a clear majority had been voted for the amendment.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[21\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-PaulGordonLauren1988p93-21)

#### <sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">Aftermath</span></sup>

Cecil felt that British support for the League of Nations was far more important than the clause. The Japanese media fully covered the progress of the conference, which led to the alienation of public opinion towards the US and would foreshadow later, broader conflicts.

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">In the United States, </span>[racial riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer_of_1919 "Red Summer of 1919")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> resulted from deliberate inaction.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[26\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauren198899-26)

<p class="callout success"><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">The international mood had changed so dramatically by 1945, that the contentious point of racial equality would be incorporated into that year's</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[United Nations Charter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Charter "United Nations Charter")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">as a fundamental principle of international justice.</span></p>

# Red Summer

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">The </span>**Red Summer**<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> was a period in mid-1919 during which </span>[white supremacist terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States#White_nationalism_and_white_supremacy "Terrorism in the United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> and </span>[racial riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States "Mass racial violence in the United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> occurred in more than three dozen cities across the </span>[United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, and in one rural county in </span>[Arkansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkansas "Arkansas")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">. The term "Red Summer" was coined by </span>[civil rights activist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights_movement "Civil rights movement")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> and author </span>[James Weldon Johnson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Weldon_Johnson "James Weldon Johnson")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, who had been employed as a </span>[field secretary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_secretary "Field secretary")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> by the </span>[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (NAACP) since 1916. In 1919, he organized </span>[peaceful protests](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonviolent_resistance "Nonviolent resistance")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> against the </span>[racial violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_violence "Racial violence").[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[1\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-erickson-1)[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[2\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-cunningham-2)

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">In most instances, attacks consisted of </span>[white](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Americans "White Americans")-on-[black](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> violence. Numerous African Americans fought back, notably in the </span>[Chicago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919 "Chicago race riot of 1919")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> and </span>[Washington, D.C., race riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_race_riot_of_1919 "Washington race riot of 1919")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, which resulted in 38 and 15 deaths, respectively, along with even more injuries, and extensive property damage in </span>[Chicago](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago "Chicago").[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[3\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_New_York_Times1919-3)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> Still, the highest number of fatalities occurred in the rural area around </span>[Elaine, Arkansas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine,_Arkansas "Elaine, Arkansas")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, where an estimated 100–240 black people and five white people were killed—an event now known as the </span>[Elaine massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine_massacre "Elaine massacre").

<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">The</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[anti-black](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_the_United_States "Anti-black racism in the United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">riots developed from a variety of post-</span>[World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I "World War I")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">socio-economic tensions, generally related to the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[demobilization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demobilization "Demobilization")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">of both black and white members of the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[United States Armed Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces "United States Armed Forces")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[following World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I#After_the_war "United States in World War I")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">; an</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[economic slump](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-World_War_I_recession "Post-World War I recession")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">; and increased competition in the job and housing markets between ethnic</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[European Americans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Americans "European Americans")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">and African Americans.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[4\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPublic_Broadcasting_Service_(PBS)2018Part_3-4)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">The period would also be marked by episodes of</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[labor unrest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_unrest "Labor unrest")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, wherein certain industrialists employed black people as</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[strikebreakers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikebreaker "Strikebreaker")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, further inflaming the resentment of white workers.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">The riots and killings were extensively documented by the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[press](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_media_in_the_United_States "News media in the United States")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, which, along with the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[federal government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States "Federal government of the United States")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, feared</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[socialist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism_in_the_United_States "Socialism in the United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">and</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[communist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Left "American Left")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">influence on the black</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[civil rights movement of the time](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954) "Civil rights movement (1896–1954)")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">following the 1917</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Bolshevik Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik_Revolution "Bolshevik Revolution")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">in Russia. They also feared foreign</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[anarchists](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism_in_the_United_States "Anarchism in the United States")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, who had</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[bombed the homes and businesses of prominent figures and government leaders](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919_United_States_anarchist_bombings "1919 United States anarchist bombings")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span>

[![ChicagoRaceRiot_1919_wagon.png](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-04/scaled-1680-/chicagoraceriot-1919-wagon.png)](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-04/scaled-1680-/chicagoraceriot-1919-wagon.png)

<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Family leaving damaged home after the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Chicago race riot of 1919](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_race_riot_of_1919 "Chicago race riot of 1919")

##### <span style="color: rgb(16, 20, 24); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Great Migration</span>

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">With the </span>[mobilization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobilization "Mobilization")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> of troops for </span>[World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I "World War I")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, and with immigration from Europe cut off, the </span>[industrial cities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_city "Industrial city")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> of the American </span>[Northeast](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern_United_States "Northeastern United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> and </span>[Midwest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwestern_United_States "Midwestern United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> experienced severe </span>[labor shortages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_shortage "Labor shortage"). As a result, northern manufacturers recruited throughout the South, from which an exodus of workers, many black, ensued.[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[5\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004279,_281%E2%80%93282-5)

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">By 1919, an estimated 500,000 </span>[African Americans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Americans "African Americans")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> had emigrated from the </span>[Southern United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_United_States "Southern United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> to the industrial cities of the Northeast and Midwest in the first wave of the </span>[Great Migration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American) "Great Migration (African American)")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> (which continued until 1940).</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[3\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_New_York_Times1919-3)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> African-American workers filled new positions in expanding industries, such as the </span>[railroads](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_railroad_history "American railroad history")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, as well as many existing jobs formerly held by whites. In some cities, they were hired as </span>[strikebreakers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikebreaker "Strikebreaker"), especially during the strikes of 1917.[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[5\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004279,_281%E2%80%93282-5)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> This increased resentment against blacks among many </span>[working-class](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States "Working class in the United States")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> whites, immigrants, and </span>[first-generation Americans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-generation_American "First-generation American").

[![Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-04/scaled-1680-/omaha-courthouse-lynching.jpg)](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-04/scaled-1680-/omaha-courthouse-lynching.jpg)

<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Will Brown, victim of Omaha, Nebraska lynching</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[31\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis2009383-31)

##### <span style="color: rgb(16, 20, 24); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Racism and Red Scare</span>

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">In the summer of 1917, violent racial riots against blacks due to labor tensions broke out in </span>[East St. Louis, Illinois](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_St._Louis,_Illinois "East St. Louis, Illinois")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, and </span>[Houston, Texas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_Texas "Houston, Texas").[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[6\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes20084-6)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> Following the war, rapid </span>[demobilization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demobilization "Demobilization")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> of the military without a plan for absorbing veterans into the job market, and the removal of </span>[price controls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_controls "Price controls"), led to massive unemployment and inflation that increased competition for jobs. Jobs were very difficult for African Americans to get in the South due to systemic racism and employment segregation.[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[7\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-7)

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">During the </span>[First Red Scare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Red_Scare "First Red Scare")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> of 1919–20, following the </span>[1917 Russian Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution_(1917) "Russian Revolution (1917)")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, </span>[anti-Bolshevik](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Leninism "Anti-Leninism")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> sentiment in the United States quickly followed on the </span>[anti-German sentiment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment "Anti-German sentiment")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> arising in the war years. Many politicians and government officials, together with much of the press and the public, feared an imminent attempt to overthrow the U.S. government to create a new regime modeled on that of the </span>[Soviets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">. Authorities viewed with alarm African-Americans' advocacy of </span>[racial equality](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_equality "Racial equality")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> and </span>[labor rights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_rights "Labor rights"), and incidents involving the deaths of whites furthered fears.[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[4\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPublic_Broadcasting_Service_(PBS)2018Part_3-4)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> In a private conversation in March 1919, President </span>[Woodrow Wilson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> said that "the American </span>[Negro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negro "Negro")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> returning from abroad would be our greatest medium in conveying </span>[Bolshevism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> to America."</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[8\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-McWhirter_p._56-8)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> Other whites expressed a wide range of opinions, some anticipating unsettled times and others seeing no signs of tension.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[9\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-McWhirter_p._19,22-24-9)

<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">In the autumn of 1919, following the violence-filled summer,</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[George Edmund Haynes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Edmund_Haynes "George Edmund Haynes")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">reported on the events as a prelude to an investigation by the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate_Committee_on_the_Judiciary "United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">. He identified 38 separate racial riots against black people in widely scattered cities, in which whites attacked black people.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[3\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThe_New_York_Times1919-3)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Unlike earlier racial riots against African Americans in U.S. history, the 1919 events were among the first in which black people in number resisted white attacks and fought back.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[13\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaxouris2019-13)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[A. Philip Randolph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph "A. Philip Randolph")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, a civil rights</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[activist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activist "Activist")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">and leader of the</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters)<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">, publicly defended the right of black people to</span><span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[self-defense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-defense "Self-defense")<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[1\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-erickson-1)

##### <span style="color: rgb(16, 20, 24); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Government activity</span>

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">During the Chicago racial violence against people of color the press was incorrectly told by </span>[Department of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice "United States Department of Justice")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> officials that the </span>[IWW](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World "Industrial Workers of the World")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, socialists, and </span>[Bolsheviks](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolsheviks "Bolsheviks")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> were "spreading propaganda to breed race hatred".</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[55\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-McWhirter_p._159-66)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> FBI agents filed reports that leftist views were winning converts in the black community. One cited the work of the </span>[NAACP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP "NAACP")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> "urging the colored people to insist upon equality with white people and to resort to force, if necessary.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[50\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-McWhirter_p._160-61)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span>[J. Edgar Hoover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Edgar_Hoover "J. Edgar Hoover"), at the start of his career in government, analyzed the riots for the Attorney General. He blamed the July Washington, D.C., riots on "numerous assaults committed by Negroes upon white women".[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[22\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckerman200860%E2%80%9362-22)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> For the October events in Arkansas, he blamed "certain local agitation in a Negro lodge".</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[22\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckerman200860%E2%80%9362-22)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> A more general cause he cited was "propaganda of a radical nature".</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[22\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckerman200860%E2%80%9362-22)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> He charged that socialists were feeding propaganda to black-owned magazines such as </span>[**The Messenger**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Messenger_Magazine "The Messenger Magazine")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">, which in turn aroused their black readers. He did not note the white perpetrators of violence, whose activities local authorities documented. As chief of the Radical Division within the U.S. Department of Justice, Hoover began an investigation of "negro activities" and targeted </span>[Marcus Garvey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Garvey "Marcus Garvey")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> because he thought his newspaper </span>[**Negro World**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negro_World "Negro World")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> preached Bolshevism.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[22\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAckerman200860%E2%80%9362-22)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> He authorized the hiring of black undercover agents to spy on black organizations and publications in Harlem.</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[55\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-McWhirter_p._159-66)

<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;">On November 17, Attorney General </span>[A. Mitchell Palmer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Mitchell_Palmer "A. Mitchell Palmer")<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> reported to Congress on the threat that anarchists and Bolsheviks posed to the government. More than half the report documented radicalism in the black community and the "open defiance" black leaders advocated in response to racial violence and the summer's rioting. It faulted the leadership of the black community for an "ill-governed reaction toward race rioting.… In all discussions of the recent racial riots against blacks there is reflected the note of pride that the Negro has found himself. That he has 'fought back,' that never again will he tamely submit to violence and intimidation."</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[56\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-McWhirter_p._239-241-67)<span style="white-space: pre-wrap;"> It described "the dangerous spirit of defiance and vengeance at work among the Negro leaders."</span>[<sup><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[56\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Summer#cite_note-McWhirter_p._239-241-67)

[![Chicago_Race_Riot_1919_stoning.png](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-04/scaled-1680-/chicago-race-riot-1919-stoning.png)](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-04/scaled-1680-/chicago-race-riot-1919-stoning.png)

<span style="color: rgb(32, 33, 34); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">African American being stoned by whites during 1919 Chicago race riot</span>