# Peoples' Rights to Journalism

**Dara O Shayda**

**Justice Node Wiki Book (𝛼1.0)**

**Aug 29 2026**

**Cover Art:Journalist Muhammad Al-Jaja and several members of his family following the occupation's shelling of his home in the Al-Nasr neighborhood west of Gaza City.**

**© 2012-Present CCN Studios Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- ShareAlike 4.0 International Public License**

# Charter of Peoples' Rights to Journalism

##### Definitions 

- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Persons or organizations who</span> **gather, assess and create**<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">,</span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">including but not limited to editors, writers, authors, publishers, printers, and present news and information to the public, playing a crucial role in promoting freedom of expression and the right to information. \[1\]</span>
- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Journalists should not be limited to those formally recognised as journalists, but should cover others, including </span>**community media workers and citizen journalists**<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> and others who may be using new media as a means of reaching their audiences. \[2\] </span>

> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">These definitions are based upon but not limited to that of Council Of Europe and might evolve and should evolve as the world evolves into new conflicts.\[1-2\]</span>

> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The term persons is used as opposed to a person in order to include teams of staffers who as a unit conduct acts of journalism. </span>

##### <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Rights</span>

1. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Journalism as an exercise of freedom of expression is the unalienable right of any persons regardless of their people, economic status, free or enslaved, with or without immigration status, with no regards to their education nor employment nor membership in any organizations.</span>
2. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">There should not be any established criteria that would exclude persons for being considered as journalists.</span>
3. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons have the same and equal rights to information and information sources impacting people. </span>
4. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons have the same and equal rights to disseminate information and information sources impacting people. </span>
5. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons have the same and equal rights to disseminate information with equal ranking as others without discrimination to lower the rank of distribution. </span>
6. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons have the same and equal rights to gather, report, and interpret information.</span>
7. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons have the same and equal rights to protect their sources of information and maintain confidentiality and secrecy. </span>
8. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons engaging in acts of journalism are treated in law as any other ordinary citizen with additional rights detailed in this charter and or similar charters. </span>
9. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons engaging in acts of journalism have full and same rights to digital computational cryptography.</span>
10. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons engaging in acts of journalism have full and same rights to income, employment, mechanizing, promotion and safe and free rights to public engagements. </span>
11. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons engaging in acts of journalism have full and same rights to artist names, free of cause.</span>
12. <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Any peoples, any persons engaging in acts of journalism have unalienable rights to bear arms to protect themselves, their staff and unalienable rights to bear arms to defend victims in conflicts.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">▢</span>

##### Conspectus

\[1\]

[![image.png](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-08/scaled-1680-/FOjimage.png)](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-08/scaled-1680-/FOjimage.png)

 **COUNCIL OF EUROPE**

**COMMITTEE OF MINISTERS**

**EXPLANATORY MEMORANDUM**

**to Recommendation No. R (00) 7**

**of the Committee of Ministers to member states**

**on the right of journalists not to disclose their sources of information**

*(Adopted by the Committee of Ministerson **8 March 2000***

*at the 701st meeting of the Ministers' Deputies)*

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">13. </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);"> In some member States, domestic laws provide a definition of who is a journalist. </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The Recommendation does not intend to alter those laws, but sets out a number of factual requirements for the purposes of this Recommendation:</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> (i) A journalist is typically a natural person. </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">The holder of the information provided by the source may be, however, not only the journalists themselves but also their employers. Therefore, legal entities like publishing companies or news agencies are also to be protected like "journalists" under this Recommendation. </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The European Court of Human Rights recognised in its judgment </span>*De Haes and Gijsels v. Belgium*<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> (24 February 1997) that the editor of a journal and the journalist working for this journal would qualify in the same way for the right not to disclose a source under Article 10 of the Convention.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> (ii) The MM-S-HR was of the opinion that a certain occupational tendency should be required, i.e. a journalist typically works regularly and receives some form of remuneration for his or her work. </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(194, 224, 244);">Therefore, the Recommendation uses the terms "regularly or professionally engaged".</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">This must not exclude, however, journalists who work freelance or part-time, are at the beginning of their professional career, or work on an independent investigation over some time. Professional accreditation or membership is not necessary. </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Nevertheless, individuals who otherwise would not regard themselves as being journalists shall not qualify as journalists for the purposes of this Recommendation. The latter category may include, for example, individuals who write letters to the editor in the print media, appear as guests on broadcasting programmes or participate in discussion for a in computer-based media. The MM-S-HR took into account the history of this protection and paid attention to the fact that the protection of sources is a vital prerequisite for the work of the media in a democratic society, but not for all forms of communication by individuals. A limitation of this protection to journalists in the above sense will also facilitate the balancing of possible conflicting rights and values foreseen in Principle 3.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> (iii) The term "collection and dissemination (...) to the public via any means of mass communication" shall refer to the fact that information is made available to the public at large or to a wider and open group of recipients, like subscribers, customers or members. Persons engaged in the creation and dissemination of personalised correspondence or advertisements are not meant hereby. </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">All kinds of communication techniques can be used, including non-periodical publications and audiovisual works. Therefore, press journalists, photo journalists, radio journalists, audiovisual journalists and journalists working for computer-based media are equally included.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Source:</span> [https://rm.coe.int/16805e2c13](https://rm.coe.int/16805e2c13)

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">\[2\] </span>

![image.png](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-08/scaled-1680-/FOjimage.png)

**Council of Europe Project**

**“Safeguarding Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Media in**

**Ukraine (SFEM-UA)”**

**TECHNICAL PAPER:**

**Defining Journalism: International Standards**

**15 November 2023**

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The definition of journalist should include the following elements:</span>

- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Be a natural or legal person; \[3\]</span>
- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">Carry out activities regularly or professionally. This should include just starting, part time and irregular activities and those also working for non-traditional media, including news-oriented social media channels, bloggers, citizen journalists, and CSOs;</span>
- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Engaged in the collection and dissemination of information for the public’s use including news, commentary, educational, and entertainment;</span>
- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Information may be disseminated by any form of communications including broadcasting, print, and digital;</span>
- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">The person should aim to meet generally accepted media professional and ethical standards for accuracy and commitment to attain the highest quality of content;</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">In addition, the legal safeguards and protection mechanisms should also cover a wide range of those providing support and assistance in the media context including:</span>

- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">Professional staff including editorial, stringers, researchers, investigators, cameramen and photographers;</span>
- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">Administrative staff and support staff including fixers, drivers and interpreters;</span>
- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">Publishing and dissemination staff including those engaged in the processing and dissemination of news and information, printing, delivery, and retailing; </span>
- <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">Technical staff and external communications providers;</span>

> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Finally, </span>**there should not be any established criteria**<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> that would exclude oneself for being considered as a journalist as journalism is an exercise of freedom of expression. This includes:</span>

> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">No requirement of education/training;</span>

> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">No requirement of membership in the professional association or holding a press card;</span>

> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">No connection with the employment status (full/partial/freelance);</span>

> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">No requirement of renumeration for activities (e.g. community media);</span>

> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">No limits on sources of funding, including “foreign funding”.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Source:</span> [https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/journalists/2023-01-31/un-plan-on-safety-journalists\_en.pdf](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/journalists/2023-01-31/un-plan-on-safety-journalists_en.pdf)

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Source:</span> [https://rm.coe.int/tp-david-banisar-definition-of-journalist-2023-en/1680b3f15b](https://rm.coe.int/tp-david-banisar-definition-of-journalist-2023-en/1680b3f15b)

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">\[3\] </span>

**Natural Person**

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">In </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">jurisprudence</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence "Jurisprudence")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, a </span>**natural person**<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> (also </span>**physical person**<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> in some </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Commonwealth countries</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_countries "Commonwealth countries")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, or </span>**natural entity**<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">) is a person (in legal meaning, i.e., one who has its own </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">legal personality</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_personality "Legal personality")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">) that is an </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">individual</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual "Individual")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">human being</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_being "Human being")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, distinguished from the broader category of a </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">legal person</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person "Legal person")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, which may be a private (i.e., </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">business entity</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_business_entity "Types of business entity")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> or </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">non-governmental organization</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organization "Non-governmental organization")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">) or public (i.e., </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">government</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government "Government")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">) organization. </span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">Historically, a human being was not necessarily considered a natural person in some jurisdictions where </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">slavery</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery "Slavery")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);"> existed (subject of a property right) rather than a person.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">According to </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Maria Helena Diniz</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Helena_Diniz "Maria Helena Diniz")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, an individual or natural person "</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: rgb(251, 238, 184);">is the human being considered as a subject of rights and obligations</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">". Every human being is endowed with legal personality and, therefore, is a subject of law.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[1\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_person#cite_note-1)

**Legal Person**

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">In </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">law</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law "Law")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, a </span>**legal person**<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> is any </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">person</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Person "Person")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> or </span>**legal entity**<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> that can do the things a human person is usually able to do in law – such as enter into </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">contracts</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract "Contract")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">sue</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawsuit "Lawsuit")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> and be sued, </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">own property</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ownership "Ownership")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, and so on.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[1\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person#cite_note-1)[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[2\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person#cite_note-oxdic-2)[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[3\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person#cite_note-3)[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[4\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person#cite_note-4)[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[5\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person#cite_note-5)<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> The reason for the term "</span>*legal*<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> person" is that some legal persons are not human persons: </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">companies</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company "Company")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> and </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">corporations</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation "Corporation")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> (i.e., </span>**business entities**<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">) are </span>*persons*<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> legally speaking (they can legally do most of the things an ordinary person can do), but they are not, in a literal sense, </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">human beings</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_being "Human being")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">.</span>

**Right to legal personality**

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Some international human rights documents and treaties recognise the right to be recognised as a legal person as an individual human right. Examples include Article 6 of the </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights "Universal Declaration of Human Rights")[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[3\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_person#cite_note-3)<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> or Article 3 the </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">American Convention on Human Rights</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Convention_on_Human_Rights "American Convention on Human Rights")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[4\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_person#cite_note-4)<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> This serves to prevent humans being stripped of their legal personality, as, for example, slaves were under some systems of </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">slavery</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery "Slavery")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">. Entities not considered persons would instead be understood as objects, and would be subject to property rights, as </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">slaves</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome "Slavery in ancient Rome")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> were, for example, in </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Ancient Rome</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome "Ancient Rome")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[5\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_person#cite_note-5)<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> Nowak considers this right to be one of the rare absolute human rights (meaning it is not possible to restrict it in any way), and additionally non-derogable.</span>[<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript">\[6\]</span></sup>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_person#cite_note-6)<sup style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"><span class="editor-theme-superscript"> </span></sup>

**Legal Consequences**

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">In many cases, fundamental </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">human rights</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> are implicitly granted only to natural persons. For example, the </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution "Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, which states a person cannot be denied the right to vote based on their sex, or </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Section 15 of the </span>*Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section_15_of_the_Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms "Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">, which guarantees equality rights, apply to natural persons only. Another example of the distinction between natural and legal persons is that a natural person can hold public office, but a corporation cannot.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">A corporation or non-governmental organization can, however, file a </span>[<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">lawsuit</span>](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawsuit "Lawsuit")<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);"> or own property as a legal person.</span>

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Source:</span> [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural\_person](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_person)

<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Source:</span> [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal\_person](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_person)

**© 2012-Present CCN Studios Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International Public License**

# Attachments and Stuff

\[1\] [https://rm.coe.int/16805e2c13](https://rm.coe.int/16805e2c13)

\[2\] [https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/ruleoflaw/How-HR-standards-mechanisms-protect-journalists.pdf](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/ruleoflaw/How-HR-standards-mechanisms-protect-journalists.pdf)

\[3\] [https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Journalists/OutcomeDocument.pdf](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Journalists/OutcomeDocument.pdf)

\[4\] [https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/journalists/2023-01-31/un-plan-on-safety-journalists\_en.pdf](https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/journalists/2023-01-31/un-plan-on-safety-journalists_en.pdf)

\[5\] [https://www.ohchr.org/en/safety-of-journalists/un-plan-action-safety-journalists-and-issue-impunity](https://www.ohchr.org/en/safety-of-journalists/un-plan-action-safety-journalists-and-issue-impunity)

\[6\] [https://www.ohchr.org/en/safety-of-journalists](https://www.ohchr.org/en/safety-of-journalists)

\[7\] [https://rm.coe.int/tp-david-banisar-definition-of-journalist-2023-en/1680b3f15b](https://rm.coe.int/tp-david-banisar-definition-of-journalist-2023-en/1680b3f15b)

\[8\] [https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-freedom-of-opinion-and-expression](https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-freedom-of-opinion-and-expression)