Public Notice by Justice Node: This thesis written under the academic advisory of US Naval Postgraduate School is a grand expose of the Israeli terror groups, now a WIKI Book that shall serve as definitive fully attested and witnessed evidence for the soon coming legal actions in the Western criminal courts of laws against the Israeli and Zionist terror groups. This thesis and the supplementary research documents are also in place to serve the Western Jewish communities in search of truth and justice in these horrid times.
#### Thesis **NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL** **Author: John Louis Peeke** **Thesis Advisor: John W. Amos** **Date: December 1977** ##### Abstract Terrorist bombings of public buildings, attacks on public officials, hijackings and assassinations of political leaders are not new phenonmena in Middle East politics. In recent history, incidents initiated by the Palestine Liberation Organization and its various components have captured headlines around the world. As recently as World War II, however, another terrorist war was fought over the same territory and for the same purposes–the creation of a Palestinian state. This time, though, the terrorists were Jewish. This paper looks at the activities of the Jewish “terror” organizations in their quest for a Jewish state. Through three chronological, more or less parallel tracks, the paper will deal with the formation of the military and paramilitary groups, their organization, leadership philosophy and actions which eventually forced Great Britain to yield to Zionist demands for a Jewish state in Palestine. # Who is Who The Terror actors in the theater of creation of Israel. External references for the thesis. # Lehi **Lehi** (Hebrew pronunciation: [\[ˈleχi\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Hebrew "Help:IPA/Hebrew"); [Hebrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language"): לח״י, sometimes abbreviated "LHI"), officially the **Fighters for the Freedom of Israel** (Hebrew: לוחמי חרות ישראל,romanized: *Lohamei Herut Israel*) and often known pejoratively as the **Stern Gang**,[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Blumberg_1998._Pp._106-22)[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Lozowick_2003._Pp._78-23)[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Shindler_2005._Pp._218-24)[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Cesarani_2010._Pp._1-25) was a [Zionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionism "Zionism") [paramilitary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramilitary "Paramilitary") [militant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militant "Militant") organization founded by [Avraham ("Yair") Stern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avraham_Stern "Avraham Stern") in [Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") in 1940.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-:0-26)[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-27)[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-28) Its avowed aim was to evict the British authorities from Palestine by use of violence, allowing unrestricted [immigration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah "Aliyah") of [Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews "Jews") and the formation of a Jewish state. It was initially called the **National Military Organization in Israel**,[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Walter_Laqueur_1972._Pp._377-29) upon being founded in August 1940, and considered its actions as necessary for achieving its national aims.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-:0-26)[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-30)[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-khazit-31) [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/hmIimage.png) Lehi split from the [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun") militant group in 1940 in order to continue fighting the [British](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") during [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). It initially sought an alliance with [Fascist Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy#Fascist_regime_(1922%E2%80%931943) "Kingdom of Italy") and [Nazi Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany").[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sasson_Sofer_2007._Pp._254-32) Believing that Nazi Germany was a lesser enemy of the Jews than Britain, Lehi twice attempted to form an alliance with the Nazis, proposing a Jewish state based on "nationalist and totalitarian principles, and linked to the German Reich by an alliance".[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sasson_Sofer_2007._Pp._254-32)[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-33) After Stern's death in 1942, the new leadership of Lehi began to move towards support for [Joseph Stalin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin "Joseph Stalin")'s [Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union")[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Walter_Laqueur_1972._Pp._377-29) and the ideology of [National Bolshevism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bolshevism "National Bolshevism"), which was considered an amalgam of both right and left.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Robert_S._Wistrich_1995._Pp._88-34)[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sasson_Sofer_2007._Pp._254-32) Regarding themselves as "revolutionary Socialists", the new Lehi developed a highly original ideology combining an "almost mystical" belief in [Greater Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Israel "Greater Israel") with support for the Arab liberation struggle.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Walter_Laqueur_1972._Pp._377-29) This sophisticated ideology failed to gain public support and Lehi fared poorly in the [first Israeli elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949_Israeli_Constituent_Assembly_election "1949 Israeli Constituent Assembly election").[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-35) In April 1948, Lehi and the Irgun were jointly responsible for the [massacre in Deir Yassin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_Yassin_massacre "Deir Yassin massacre") of at least 107 Palestinian Arab villagers, including women and children. Lehi assassinated [Lord Moyne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Guinness,_1st_Baron_Moyne#Assassination "Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne"), British Minister Resident in the Middle East, and made many other attacks on the British in Palestine.[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-36) On 29 May 1948, the government of Israel, having inducted the group's activist members into the [Israel Defense Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces"), formally disbanded Lehi, though some of its members carried out one final terrorist act, the assassination of Swedish diplomat [Folke Bernadotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folke_Bernadotte "Folke Bernadotte") some months later,[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-37) an act condemned by Bernadotte's replacement as mediator, [Ralph Bunche](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Bunche "Ralph Bunche").[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-38) After the assassination, the new Israeli government declared Lehi a terrorist organization, arresting some 200 members and convicting some of the leaders.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-APAP-39) However, several months later, just before the first Israeli elections in January 1949, the government granted all Lehi prisoners amnesty under a state general order of pardon, and they were released.[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-APAP-39) In 1980, Israel instituted a military decoration, an "award for activity in the struggle for the establishment of Israel", the [Lehi ribbon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_military_decorations#Service_ribbons "Israeli military decorations").[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-lehiribbon-40) Former Lehi leader [Yitzhak Shamir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir "Yitzhak Shamir") became [Prime Minister of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Israel "Prime Minister of Israel") in 1983. Lehi was created in August 1940 by [Avraham Stern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avraham_Stern "Avraham Stern").[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Nachman_Ben-Yehuda_1995._Pp._322-2) Stern had been a member of the [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun") (*Irgun Tsvai Leumi* – "National Military Organization") high command. [Zeev Jabotinsky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeev_Jabotinsky "Zeev Jabotinsky"), then the Irgun's supreme commander, had decided that diplomacy and working with Britain would best serve the Zionist cause. [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") was in progress, and Britain was fighting [Nazi Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany"). The Irgun suspended its underground military activities against the British for the duration of the war. [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/a1himage.png) [Avraham Stern](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avraham_Stern) Stern argued that the time for Zionist diplomacy was over and that it was time for an armed struggle against the British. Like other Zionists, he objected to the [White Paper of 1939](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Paper_of_1939 "White Paper of 1939"), which restricted both Jewish immigration and Jewish land purchases in Palestine. For Stern, "no difference existed between [Hitler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") and [Chamberlain](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain "Neville Chamberlain"), between [Dachau](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp "Dachau concentration camp") or [Buchenwald](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buchenwald_concentration_camp "Buchenwald concentration camp") and sealing the gates of Eretz Israel."[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Shindler_1995-41) Stern wanted to open Palestine to all Jewish refugees from Europe and considered this to be the most important issue of the day. Britain would not allow this. Therefore, he concluded, the [*Yishuv*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv "Yishuv") (Jews of Palestine) should fight the British rather than support them in the war. When the Irgun made a truce with the British, Stern left the Irgun to form his own group, which he called *Irgun Tsvai Leumi B'Yisrael* ("National Military Organization in Israel"), later *Lohamei Herut Israel* ("Fighters for the Freedom of Israel"). In September 1940, the organization was officially named "Lehi", the Hebrew [acronym](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym "Acronym") of the latter name.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Nachman_Ben-Yehuda_1995._Pp._322-2) Stern and his followers believed that dying for the "foreign occupier" who was obstructing the creation of the Jewish State was useless. They differentiated between "enemies of the Jewish people" (the British) and "Jew haters" (the [Nazis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism "Nazism")), believing that the former needed to be defeated and the latter manipulated.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Bauer-42) Stern and his followers believed that dying for the "foreign occupier" who was obstructing the creation of the Jewish State was useless. They differentiated between "enemies of the Jewish people" (the British) and "Jew haters" (the [Nazis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism "Nazism")), believing that the former needed to be defeated and the latter manipulated.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Bauer-42) In 1940, the idea of the [Final Solution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Solution "Final Solution") was still "unthinkable", and Stern believed that Hitler wanted to make Germany [*judenrein*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judenrein "Judenrein") through emigration, as opposed to extermination.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Shindler_1995-41)[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-43) In December 1940, Lehi contacted Germany with a proposal to aid German conquest in the Middle East in return for recognition of a Jewish state open to unlimited immigration.[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Shindler_1995-41) #### Political racism According to [Yaacov Shavit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaacov_Shavit "Yaacov Shavit"), professor at the Department of Jewish History, [Tel Aviv University](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University "Tel Aviv University"), articles in Lehi publications contained references to a Jewish "master race", contrasting the Jews with Arabs who were seen as a "nation of slaves".[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Jabotinsky-59) American journalist [Sasha Polakow-Suransky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasha_Polakow-Suransky "Sasha Polakow-Suransky") writes that "Lehi was also unabashedly racist towards Arabs. Their publications described Jews as a master race and Arabs as a slave race." Lehi advocated mass expulsion of all Arabs from [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_(region) "Palestine (region)") and [Transjordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transjordan_(region) "Transjordan (region)"),[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-60) or even their physical annihilation.[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-61) #### Bandits and Assassins > The group was initially unsuccessful. Early attempts to raise funds through criminal activities, including a bank robbery in Tel Aviv in 1940 and another robbery on 9 January 1942 in which Jewish passers-by were killed, brought about the temporary collapse of the group. An attempt to assassinate the head of the British secret police in [Lod](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lod "Lod") in which three police personnel were killed, two Jewish and one British, elicited a severe response from the British and Jewish establishments who collaborated against Lehi.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Weinberg_2003,_p._109-64) They targeted Jews whom they regarded as traitors, and during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War they joined in operations with the [Haganah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haganah "Haganah") and [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun") against Arab targets, for example [Deir Yassin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_Yassin "Deir Yassin"). > According to a compilation by Nachman Ben-Yehuda, Lehi was responsible for 42 assassinations, more than twice as many as the Irgun and Haganah combined during the same period. Of those Lehi assassinations that Ben-Yehuda classified as political, more than half the victims were Jews.[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-66) #### Goals and ideology Lehi had three main goals: - To bring together all those interested in liberation (that is, those willing to join in active fighting against the British). - To appear before the world as the only active Jewish military organization. - To take over [*Eretz Yisrael*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eretz_Yisrael "Eretz Yisrael") (the Land of Israel) by armed force.[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-45) Lehi believed in its early years that its goals would be achieved by finding a strong international ally that would expel the British from Palestine, in return for Jewish military help; this would require the creation of a broad and organised military force "demonstrating its desire for freedom through military operations."[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Weinberg_2003,_p._107-46) Lehi also referred to themselves as 'terrorists' and may have been one of the last organizations to do so.[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-calderwalton-47) An article titled "Terror" in the Lehi underground newspaper *He Khazit* (*The Front*) argued as follows: > Neither Jewish ethics nor Jewish tradition can disqualify [terrorism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism "Terrorism") as a means of combat. We are very far from having any moral qualms as far as our national war goes. We have before us the command of the [Torah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah "Torah"), whose morality surpasses that of any other body of laws in the world: "Ye shall blot them out to the last man." > > But first and foremost, terrorism is for us a part of the political battle being conducted under the present circumstances, and it has a great part to play: speaking in a clear voice to the whole world, as well as to our wretched brethren outside this land, it proclaims our war against the occupier. > > We are particularly far from this sort of hesitation in regard to an enemy whose moral perversion is admitted by all.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-khazit-31) he article described the goals of terror: > - It demonstrates ... against the true terrorist who hides behind his piles of papers and the laws he has legislated. > - It is not directed against people, it is directed against representatives. Therefore it is effective. > - If it also shakes the [*Yishuv*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv "Yishuv") from their complacency, good and well.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-khazit-31) [Yitzhak Shamir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir "Yitzhak Shamir"), one of the three leaders of Lehi after Avraham Stern's assassination, argued for the legitimacy of Lehi's actions: > There are those who say that to kill Martin[\[c\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-48) is terrorism, but to attack an army camp is guerrilla warfare and to bomb civilians is professional warfare. But I think it is the same from the moral point of view. Is it better to drop an atomic bomb on a city than to kill a handful of persons? I don't think so. But nobody says that President Truman was a terrorist. All the men we went for individually – Wilkin, Martin, [MacMichael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_MacMichael "Harold MacMichael") and others – were personally interested in succeeding in the fight against us. > > So it was more efficient and more moral to go for selected targets. In any case, it was the only way we could operate, because we were so small. For us it was not a question of the professional honour of a soldier, it was the question of an idea, an aim that had to be achieved. We were aiming at a political goal. There are many examples of what we did to be found in the [Bible](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible "Bible") – [Gideon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon "Gideon") and [Samson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samson "Samson"), for instance. This had an influence on our thinking. And we also learned from the history of other peoples who fought for their freedom – the Russian and Irish revolutionaries, [Giuseppe Garibaldi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi "Giuseppe Garibaldi") and [Josip Broz Tito](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josip_Broz_Tito "Josip Broz Tito").[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-49) #### Activities and operations during World War II [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/YZVimage.png) German cover letter from 11 January 1941 attached to a description of an offer for an alliance with [Nazi Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") attributed to Lehi. Late in 1940, Lehi, having identified a common interest between the intentions of the new German order and Jewish national aspirations, proposed forming an alliance in World War II with [Nazi Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany").[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sasson_Sofer_2007._Pp._254-32) The organization offered cooperation in the following terms: Lehi would rebel against the British, while Germany would recognize an independent Jewish state in Palestine/Eretz Israel, and all Jews leaving their homes in Europe, by their own will or because of government injunctions, could enter Palestine with no restriction of numbers.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Bauer-42) Late in 1940, Lehi representative Naftali Lubenchik[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-76) went to [Beirut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut "Beirut") to meet German official [Werner Otto von Hentig](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Otto_von_Hentig "Werner Otto von Hentig"). The Lehi documents outlined that its rule would be authoritarian and indicated similarities between the organization and Nazis.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Bauer-42) [Israel Eldad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Eldad "Israel Eldad"), one of the leading members of Lehi, wrote about Hitler "it is not Hitler who is the hater of the kingdom of Israel and the return to Zion, it is not Hitler who subjects us to the cruel fate of falling a second and a third time into Hitler's hands, but the British."[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-77) Stern also proposed recruiting 40,000 Jews from occupied Europe to invade Palestine with German support to oust the British.[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sasson_Sofer_2007._Pp._254-32) On 11 January 1941, Vice Admiral Ralf von der Marwitz, the German naval [attaché](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attach%C3%A9 "Attaché") in [Turkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey "Turkey"), filed a report (the "Ankara document") conveying an offer by Lehi to "actively take part in the war on Germany's side" in return for German support for "the establishment of the historic Jewish state on a national and totalitarian basis, bound by a treaty with the German Reich."[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller-70)[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-78)[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-79) According to Yellin-Mor: > Lubenchik did not take along any written memorandum for the German representatives. Had there been a need for one, he would have formulated it on the spot, since he was familiar with the episode of the Italian "intermediary" and with the numerous drafts connected with it. Apparently one of von Hentig's secretaries noted down the essence of the proposal in his own words.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-80) According to Joseph Heller, "The memorandum arising from their conversation is an entirely authentic document, on which the stamp of the 'IZL in Israel' is clearly embossed."[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-81) Von der Marwitz delivered the offer, classified as secret, to the German Ambassador in Turkey and on 21 January 1941 it was sent to Berlin. There was never any response.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-82) A second attempt to contact the Nazis was made at the end of 1941, but it was even less successful.[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-83) The emissary Yellin-Mor was arrested in Syria before he could carry out his mission.[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-84) This proposed alliance with Nazi Germany cost Lehi and Stern much support.[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-85) The Stern Gang also had links with, and support from, the [Vichy France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vichy_France "Vichy France") [Sûreté](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BBret%C3%A9 "Sûreté")'s Lebanese offices.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-86) Even as the full scale of Nazi atrocities became more evident in 1943, Lehi refused to accept Hitler as the main foe (as opposed to Great Britain).[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-The_Stern_Gang_p._114-87) In 1942, a Lehi member named Efraim Zetler was kidnapped and interrogated by the Haganah.[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-88) According to transcripts released by Israel's state archives in 2023, during the interrogations, Zetler said that Nazi Germany was not the "enemy of the Jews" and ready to receive assistance from them, stating: > "We will communicate with any military power ready to help with the establishment of the [Kingdom of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy) "Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)"), even if it's Germany. The only condition is that we get weapons, so we can rebel against the English. If Germany agrees to help us fight enemy number 1, the English, we'll team up with it. It’s not an enemy of the Jews in Israel."[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-mee-89) ### Assassination of Lord Moyne Further information: [Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne § Assassination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Guinness,_1st_Baron_Moyne#Assassination "Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne") On 6 November 1944, Lehi assassinated [Lord Moyne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Guinness,_1st_Baron_Moyne "Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne"), the British Minister Resident in the Middle East, in [Cairo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo "Cairo"). Moyne was the highest ranking British official in the region. Yitzhak Shamir claimed later that Moyne was assassinated because of his support for a Middle Eastern Arab Federation and anti-Semitic lectures in which Arabs were held to be racially superior to Jews.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-90) The assassination rocked the British government, and outraged [Winston Churchill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill "Winston Churchill"), the British [Prime Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister "Prime Minister"). The two assassins, [Eliyahu Bet-Zuri](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliyahu_Bet-Zuri "Eliyahu Bet-Zuri") and [Eliyahu Hakim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliyahu_Hakim "Eliyahu Hakim") were captured and used their trial as a platform to make public their political propaganda. They were both found guilty and executed. In 1975, their bodies were returned to Israel, with Egypt exchanging them for 20 Arab prisoners, and given a state funeral.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-91)[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-92) In 1982, postage stamps were issued for 20 [Olei Hagardom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olei_Hagardom "Olei Hagardom"), including Bet-Zouri and Hakim, in a souvenir sheet called "Martyrs of the struggle for Israel's independence."[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-93)[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-94) After Moyne's assassination, a member of Lehi who was arrested shortly after named Rafael Sawovsky told interrogators that an assassination plan against Churchill was proposed by Lehi members, according to MI5 files released by [The National Archives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom) "The National Archives (United Kingdom)") in 2011.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-95) #### Post war terrorist campaign and insurgency As a group that never had more than a few hundred members, Lehi relied on audacious but small-scale operations to drive its message home. They adopted the tactics of groups such as the [Socialist Revolutionaries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Revolutionaries "Socialist Revolutionaries") and the [Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_Organization_of_the_Polish_Socialist_Party "Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party") in Czarist Russia,[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-96) and the [Irish Republican Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army "Irish Republican Army"). To this end, Lehi conducted small-scale operations such as individual assassinations of British officials (notable targets included [Lord Moyne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Guinness,_1st_Baron_Moyne "Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne"), [CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_Investigation_Department "Criminal Investigation Department") detectives, and Jewish "collaborators"), and random shootings against soldiers and police officers.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Bell-97) Another strategy, adopted in 1946, was to send bombs in the mail to British politicians. Other actions included sabotaging infrastructure targets: bridges, [railroads](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad "Railroad"), telephone and telegraph lines, and [oil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum "Petroleum") refineries, as well as the use of vehicle bombs against British military, police, and administrative targets. Lehi financed its operations from private donations, [extortion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extortion "Extortion"), and [bank robbery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_robbery "Bank robbery"). Its campaign of violence lasted from 1944 to 1948. Initially conducted together with the Irgun, it included a six-month suspension to avoid being targeted by the [Haganah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haganah "Haganah") during the [Hunting Season](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunting_Season "The Hunting Season"), and later operated jointly with the Haganah and Irgun under the [Jewish Resistance Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Resistance_Movement "Jewish Resistance Movement"). After the Jewish Resistance Movement was dissolved, it operated independently as part of the general [Jewish insurgency in Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_insurgency_in_Palestine "Jewish insurgency in Palestine").\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] #### Tel Aviv car park raid On 25 April 1946, a Lehi unit attacked a car park in [Tel Aviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") occupied by the British [6th Airborne Division](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Airborne_Division_(United_Kingdom) "6th Airborne Division (United Kingdom)"). Under a barrage of heavy covering fire, Lehi fighters broke into the car park, shot soldiers they encountered at close range, stole rifles from arms racks, laid mines to cover the retreat, and withdrew. Seven soldiers were killed in the attack, which caused widespread outrage among the British security forces in Palestine. It resulted in retaliatory anti-Jewish violence by British troops and a punitive curfew imposed on Tel Aviv's roads and the closure of places of entertainment in the city by the British Army.[\[94\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Bell-97) #### British police station in Haifa See also: [Lehi bombing of Haifa police station](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_bombing_of_Haifa_police_station "Lehi bombing of Haifa police station") On 12 January 1947, Lehi members drove a truckload of explosives into a British police station in [Haifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa "Haifa"), killing four and injuring 140, in what has been called 'the world's first true truck bomb'.[\[95\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-98) ### Operations in Europe [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Bayles.jpg) Betty Knouth, Tel Aviv, 24 August 1948 Following the bombing of the British embassy in Rome, in October 1946, a series of operations against targets in the United Kingdom were launched. On 7 March 1947, Lehi's only successful operation in Britain was carried out when a Lehi bomb severely damaged the British Colonial Club, a [London](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London "London") recreational facility for soldiers and students from Britain's colonies in Africa and the West Indies.[\[96\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-99) On 15 April 1947 a bomb consisting of twenty-four sticks of explosives was planted in the Colonial Office, [Whitehall](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitehall "Whitehall"). It failed to explode due to a fault in the timer. Five weeks later, on 22 May, five alleged Lehi members were arrested in Paris with bomb making material including explosives of the same type as found in London. On 2 June, two Lehi members, Betty Knouth and Yaakov Levstein, were arrested crossing from [Belgium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium "Belgium") to [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France"). Envelopes addressed to British officials, with detonators, batteries and a time fuse were found in one of Knouth's suitcases. The British Security Services identified Knouth as the person who planted the bomb in the Colonial Office. Shortly after their arrest, 21 letter bombs addressed to senior British figures were intercepted. The letters had been posted in Italy. The intended recipients included [Bevin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Bevin "Ernest Bevin"), [Attlee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_Attlee "Clement Attlee"), [Churchill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill "Winston Churchill") and [Eden](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Eden "Anthony Eden").[\[97\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-100) Eden carried a letter bomb in his suitcase for a whole day, thinking it was a Whitehall pamphlet that he would read later in the day. He only realized it was a bomb after being warned by the police, who were informed by MI5.[\[98\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-101) Knouth was also known as Gilberte/Elizabeth Lazarus. Levstein was travelling as Jacob Elias; his fingerprints connected him to the deaths of several Palestine Policemen as well as an attempt on the life of the British High Commissioner. In September 1947, a Belgian court sentenced Knouth to one year in prison and Levstein to eight months in prison for illegally transporting explosives with intent to commit a felony.[\[99\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-102) In 1973, [Margaret Truman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Truman "Margaret Truman") wrote that letter bombs were also posted to her father, U.S. President [Harry S. Truman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman "Harry S. Truman"), in 1947.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-BenYehuda-103) Former Lehi leader Yellin-Mor admitted that letter bombs had been sent to British targets but denied that any had been sent to Truman.[\[100\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-BenYehuda-103)[\[101\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-104) #### Death threat against Hugh Trevor-Roper Shortly after the 1947 publication of *The Last Days of Hitler*, Lehi issued a death threat against the author, [Hugh Trevor-Roper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper "Hugh Trevor-Roper"), for his portrayal of Hitler, feeling that Trevor-Roper had attempted to exonerate the German populace from responsibility.[\[104\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-107) #### Cairo-Haifa train bombings Main article: [Cairo–Haifa train bombings 1948](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo%E2%80%93Haifa_train_bombings_1948 "Cairo–Haifa train bombings 1948") During the lead-up to the [1948 Arab–Israeli War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War "1948 Arab–Israeli War"), Lehi [mined the Cairo–Haifa train](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo%E2%80%93Haifa_train_bombings_1948 "Cairo–Haifa train bombings 1948") several times. On 29 February 1948, Lehi mined the train north of [Rehovot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rehovot "Rehovot"), killing 28 British soldiers and wounding 35. On 31 March, Lehi mined the train near [Binyamina](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binyamina "Binyamina"), killing 40 civilians and wounding 60. #### Attempted Nablus terror attack [Shlomo Sand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shlomo_Sand "Shlomo Sand") writes that as a method of applying pressure on Arab villagers to abandon their settlements, Lehi planned a terror attack on [Nablus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nablus "Nablus") and its Arab city headquarters; Lehi fighter Elisha Ibzov (Avraham Cohen) was captured with a truck filled with explosives on his way to the city. Lehi fighters in return abducted four adult villagers and youth from al-Sheikh Muwannis with no connection to Ibzov's capture and threatened to kill them. As rumours spread that they were already murdered, panic set out in the villagers and the settlement became increasingly abandoned, despite the eventual release of the hostages[\[105\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-108) ### Deir Yassin massacre Main article: [Deir Yassin massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_Yassin_massacre "Deir Yassin massacre") One of the most widely known acts of Lehi was the attack on the Palestinian-Arab village of [Deir Yassin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_Yassin "Deir Yassin"). In the months before the British evacuation from Palestine, the [Arab League](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League "Arab League")-sponsored [Arab Liberation Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army "Arab Liberation Army") (ALA) occupied several strategic points along the road between [Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") and [Tel Aviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv"), cutting off supplies to the Jewish part of Jerusalem. One of these points was Deir Yassin. By March 1948, the road was cut off and Jewish Jerusalem was under siege. The Haganah launched [Operation Nachshon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Nachshon "Operation Nachshon") to break the siege. On 6 April, the Haganah attacked [al-Qastal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Qastal,_Jerusalem "Al Qastal, Jerusalem"), a village two kilometres north of Deir Yassin, also overlooking the Jerusalem-Tel Aviv road.[\[106\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Silver1984p91-109) Then on 9 April 1948, about 120 Lehi and Irgun fighters, acting in cooperation with the Haganah, attacked and captured Deir Yassin. The attack was at night, the fighting was confused, and many civilian inhabitants of the village were killed.[\[107\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-110) This action had great consequences for the war, and remains a cause célèbre for Palestinians ever since. Exactly what happened has never been established clearly. The Arab League reported a great massacre: 254 killed, with rape and lurid mutilations. Israeli investigations claimed the actual number of dead was between 100 and 120, and there were no mass rapes, but most of the dead were civilians and admitted some were killed deliberately. Lehi and Irgun both denied an organized massacre. Accounts by Lehi veterans such as Ezra Yakhin note that many of the attackers were killed or wounded, assert that Arabs fired from every building and that Iraqi and Syrian soldiers were among the dead, and even that some Arab fighters dressed as women.[\[108\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-yakhin_261%E2%80%93272-111) However, Jewish authorities, including Haganah, the Chief Rabbinate, the Jewish Agency, and [David Ben-Gurion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion"), also condemned the attack, lending credence to the charge of massacre.[\[109\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-112) The Jewish Agency even sent a letter of condemnation, apology, and condolence to King [Abdullah I of Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdullah_I_of_Jordan "Abdullah I of Jordan").[\[110\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-113) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_1105_Israel_Defense_Forces_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%99.jpg) Female Lehi fighters in 1948 Both the Arab reports and Jewish responses had hidden motives: the Arab leaders wanted to encourage Palestinian Arabs to fight rather than surrender, to discredit the Zionists with international opinion, and to increase popular support in their countries for an invasion of Palestine. The Jewish leaders wanted to discredit Irgun and Lehi. Ironically, the Arab reports backfired in one respect: frightened Palestinian Arabs did not surrender, but did not fight either – [they fled](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight "1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight"), allowing Israel to gain much territory with little fighting and also without absorbing many Arabs.[\[111\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-114) Lehi similarly interpreted events at Deir Yassin as turning the tide of war in favour of the Jews. Lehi leader [Israel Eldad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Eldad "Israel Eldad") later wrote in his memoirs from the underground period that "without Deir Yassin the State of Israel could never have been established".[\[112\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-eldad_334-335-115)[\[113\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-116) The Deir Yassin story did not much sway international opinion.\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] It did increase, not only support but pressure on Arab governments to intervene. Abdullah of Jordan was now compelled to join the invasion of Palestine after [Israel's declaration of independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Israel) "Declaration of Independence (Israel)") on 14 May.\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] ### Assassination of Count Folke Bernadotte [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Folke-Bernadotte.jpg) UN mediator Count [Folke Bernadotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folke_Bernadotte "Folke Bernadotte") was assassinated by *Lehi* in [Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") in 1948. Further information: [Folke Bernadotte § Assassination](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folke_Bernadotte#Assassination "Folke Bernadotte") Although Lehi had stopped operating nationally after May 1948, the group continued to function in Jerusalem. On 17 September 1948, Lehi assassinated UN mediator Count [Folke Bernadotte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folke_Bernadotte "Folke Bernadotte"). The assassination was directed by [Yehoshua Zettler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehoshua_Zettler "Yehoshua Zettler") and carried out by a four-man team led by Meshulam Makover. The fatal shots were fired by [Yehoshua Cohen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehoshua_Cohen "Yehoshua Cohen"). The [Security Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council") described the assassination as a "cowardly act which appears to have been committed by a criminal group of terrorists".[\[114\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-117) Three days after the assassination, the Israeli government passed the Ordinance to Prevent Terrorism and declared Lehi to be a terrorist organization.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sprinzak45-118)[\[116\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-119) Many Lehi members were arrested, including leaders [Nathan Yellin-Mor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Yellin-Mor "Nathan Yellin-Mor") and Matityahu Shmulevitz who were arrested on 29 September.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sprinzak45-118) Eldad and Shamir managed to escape arrest.[\[115\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sprinzak45-118) Yellin-Mor and Schmulevitz were charged with leadership of a terrorist organization and on 10 February 1949 were sentenced to 8 years and 5 years imprisonment, respectively.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sprinzak47-120)[\[118\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-121)[\[119\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-PPost-122) However the State (Temporary) Council soon announced a general amnesty for Lehi members and they were released.[\[117\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Sprinzak47-120)[\[120\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-123) #### The Lehi trial and the Fighters' Party [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LehiTerroristDesignation.jpg) Declaration of Lehi as a terrorist organization, September 20, 1948[\[121\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-124) Between 5 December 1948 and 25 January 1949, Yellin-Mor and Shmuelevitz were tried in a military court on terrorism charges.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller261-125) The prosecution accused them of the murder of Bernadotte, though they were not specifically charged with it.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller261-125) Senior officers of the IDF, including [Yisrael Galili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yisrael_Galili "Yisrael Galili") and [David Shaltiel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Shaltiel "David Shaltiel"), told the court that Lehi had hindered, rather than assisted the fight against the British and the Arabs.[\[122\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller261-125) While the trial was in progress, some of the Lehi leadership founded a USSR-leaning political party called the [Fighters' List](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighters'_List "Fighters' List") with Yellin-Mor as its leader.[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller265-126) The party took part in the [elections in January 1949](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949_Israeli_legislative_election "1949 Israeli legislative election") with Yellin-Mor and Shmuelevitz heading the list.[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller265-126) The trial verdict was handed down on 10 February, soon after the Fighters' List had won one seat with only 1.2% of the vote.[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller265-126) Yellin-Mor was sentenced to 8 years and Shmuelevitz to 5 years imprisonment, but the court agreed to remit the sentences if the prisoners agreed to a list of conditions.[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller265-126) The Provisional State Council then authorised their pardon.[\[123\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller265-126) The party disbanded after several years and did not contest the [1951 elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1951_Israeli_legislative_election "1951 Israeli legislative election").[\[124\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Heller279-127) In 1956, some Lehi veterans established the [Semitic Action](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_Action "Semitic Action") movement, which sought the creation of a regional federation encompassing Israel and its Arab neighbours[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-tikkun-52)[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-enc-53) on the basis of an anti-colonialist alliance with other indigenous inhabitants of the Middle East.[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-dispersion-54) Not all Lehi alumni gave up [political violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_violence "Political violence") after independence: former members were involved in the activities of the [Kingdom of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(group) "Kingdom of Israel (group)") militant group, the 1957 assassination of [Rudolf Kastner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Kastner "Rudolf Kastner"), and likely the 1952 attempted assassination of [David-Zvi Pinkas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David-Zvi_Pinkas "David-Zvi Pinkas").[\[125\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-baram-128)[\[126\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-time-129)[\[127\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-segev-130)[\[128\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-131) #### Publications Lehi produced a range of publications containing unabashedly racist literature referring to Jews as a "master race" and Arabs as a "slave race".[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Jabotinsky-59)[\[129\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-Suransky-132) Prominent publications included [*Hamaas*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamaas "Hamaas") (Ahe Action), a weekly publication,[\[130\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-133) as well as the monthly *HaKhazit* (The Front),[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)#cite_note-khazit-31) daily *Mivrak* (Telegram), an \[1\] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi\_(militant\_group)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(militant_group)) # Peel Commission The **Peel Commission**, formally known as the **Palestine Royal Commission**, was a British [Royal Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Commission "Royal Commission") of Inquiry, headed by [Lord Peel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wellesley_Peel,_1st_Earl_Peel "William Wellesley Peel, 1st Earl Peel"), appointed in 1936 to investigate the causes of [conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercommunal_conflict_in_Mandatory_Palestine "Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine") in [Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine"), which was administered by the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), following a six-month-long [Arab general strike](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_general_strike_(Mandatory_Palestine) "Arab general strike (Mandatory Palestine)"). On 7 July 1937, the commission published a report that, for the first time, stated that the [League of Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") [Mandate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine "Mandate for Palestine") had become unworkable and recommended partition.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-avalon-1) The British cabinet endorsed the Partition plan in principle but requested more information.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Mandated_Landscape-2) Following the publication, in 1938 the [Woodhead Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhead_Commission "Woodhead Commission") was appointed to examine it in detail and recommend an actual partition plan. The Arab leadership opposed the partition plan.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-3) The [Arab Higher Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Higher_Committee "Arab Higher Committee") opposed the idea of a Jewish state[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Podeh-4) and called for an independent state of Palestine, "with protection of all legitimate Jewish and other minority rights and safeguarding of reasonable British interests".[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Bose2009-5) They also demanded cessation of all Jewish immigration and land purchase.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Podeh-4) They argued that the creation of a Jewish state and lack of independent Palestine was a betrayal of the word given by Britain.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Mandated_Landscape-2)[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-jstor25642368-6) The Zionist leadership was bitterly divided over the plan.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Podeh-4) In a resolution adopted at the 1937 Zionist Congress, the delegates rejected the specific partition plan. Yet the principle of partition is generally thought to have been "accepted" or "not rejected outright" by any major faction: the delegates empowered the leadership to pursue future negotiations.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Podeh-4)[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-7)[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-9) The [Jewish Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Agency "Jewish Agency") Council later attached a request that a conference be convened to explore a peaceful settlement in terms of an undivided Palestine.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Podeh-4) According to [Benny Morris](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Morris "Benny Morris"), [Ben-Gurion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion") and [Weizmann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann "Chaim Weizmann") saw it "as a stepping stone to some further expansion and the eventual takeover of the whole of Palestine".[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Podeh-4)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-MorrisBGW-10) #### History With the collapse of the [Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") at the end of World War I, The United Kingdom was given a [mandate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate "League of Nations mandate") by the [League of Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") to [administer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine "Mandate for Palestine") the region known as Palestine. The mandate continued in force until the United Kingdom withdrew from it in 1948.<sup class="mw-ref reference" data-mw="{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite\_note-11"}}" id="bkmrk-%5B11%5D">[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-11) The solution led to other problems, however, as the British sought to honor the [Balfour Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Declaration "Balfour Declaration") while protecting the rights of the prior inhabitants of the territory. The British government investigated numerous possibilities for the region, including [partition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine#Partition_proposals "Mandatory Palestine"). The commission was established at a time of increased violence; serious [clashes between Arabs and Jews broke out in 1936](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936%E2%80%9339_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine "1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine") and were to last three years. On 11 November 1936, the commission arrived in Palestine to investigate the reasons behind the uprising. The commission was charged with determining the cause of the riots, and judging the grievances of both sides. [Chaim Weizmann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann "Chaim Weizmann") made a speech on behalf of the Jews. On 25 November 1936, testifying before the Peel Commission, Weizmann said that there are in Europe 6,000,000 Jews ... "for whom the world is divided into places where they cannot live and places where they cannot enter."<sup class="mw-ref reference" data-mw="{"name":"ref","attrs":{"name":"Weizmann1983p102"}}" id="bkmrk-%5B12%5D">[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-Weizmann1983p102-12) The [Mufti](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mufti "Mufti") of Jerusalem, Hajj [Amin al-Husseini](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini "Amin al-Husseini"), testified in front of the commission, opposing any partition of Arab lands with the Jews. He demanded full cessation of Jewish immigration. Although the Arabs continued to boycott the Commission officially, there was a sense of urgency to respond to Weizmann's appeal to restore calm. The former Mayor of Jerusalem [Ragheb Bey al-Nashashibi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raghib_al-Nashashibi "Raghib al-Nashashibi")—who was the Mufti's rival in the internal Palestinian arena, was thus sent to explain the Arab perspective through unofficial channels.\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] In 1981 it was disclosed that the [Jewish Agency Executive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Agency "Jewish Agency") Political Department had installed microphones in the room in which the commission was meeting and Ben Gurion was able to read transcripts of evidence held in camera.<sup class="mw-ref reference" data-mw="{"name":"ref","attrs":{},"body":{"id":"mw-reference-text-cite\_note-13"}}" id="bkmrk-%5B13%5D">[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission#cite_note-13) \[1\] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel\_Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel_Commission) # Mandate For Palestine The **Mandate for Palestine** was a [League of Nations mandate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate "League of Nations mandate") for [British](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") administration of the territories of [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") and [Transjordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan "Emirate of Transjordan") – which had been [part of](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Syria "Ottoman Syria") the [Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") for four centuries – following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in [World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"). Under the mandate, Britain assumed obligations both to the inhabitants of Palestine and to the establishment of a Jewish national home, as set out in the British government's 1917 Balfour Declaration.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine#cite_note-:1-6) The mandate was assigned to Britain by the [San Remo conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Remo_conference "San Remo conference") in April 1920, after France's concession in the [1918 Clemenceau–Lloyd George Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918_Clemenceau%E2%80%93Lloyd_George_Agreement_(Middle_East) "1918 Clemenceau–Lloyd George Agreement (Middle East)") of the previously agreed "international administration" of Palestine under the [Sykes–Picot Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement "Sykes–Picot Agreement"). Transjordan was added to the mandate after [the Arab Kingdom in Damascus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria "Arab Kingdom of Syria") was toppled by the French in the [Franco-Syrian War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Syrian_War "Franco-Syrian War"). Civil administration began in Palestine and Transjordan in July 1920 and April 1921, respectively, and the mandate was in force from 29 September 1923 to 15 May 1948 and to 25 May 1946 respectively. The mandate document was based on Article 22 of the [Covenant of the League of Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations "Covenant of the League of Nations") of 28 June 1919 and the [Supreme Council of the Principal Allied Powers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I "Allies of World War I")' San Remo Resolution of 25 April 1920. The mandatory power's objective was to administer the territories as a trust until they were "able to stand alone", taking into account the wishes and interests of their inhabitants. However, it was not itself a sovereign authority over the territory, and could not unilaterally transfer sovereignty to itself or independently establish territorial title.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine#cite_note-7) The border between Palestine and Transjordan was agreed in the final mandate document, and the approximate northern border with the French [Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon "Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon") was agreed in the [Paulet–Newcombe Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paulet%E2%80%93Newcombe_Agreement "Paulet–Newcombe Agreement") of 23 December 1920. UN Library: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/829707?v=pdf # British White Paper of 1939 #### British White Paper of 1939 In the statement on Palestine, issued on 9 November, 1938, His Majesty's Government announced their intention to invite representatives of the Arabs of Palestine, of certain neighboring countries and of the Jewish Agency to confer with them in London regarding future policy. It was their sincere hope that, as a result of full, free and frank discussions, some understanding might be reached. Conferences recently took place with Arab and Jewish delegations, lasting for a period of several weeks, and served the purpose of a complete exchange of views between British Ministers and the Arab and Jewish representatives. In the light of the discussions as well as of the situation in Palestine and of the Reports of the Royal Commission and the Partition Commission, certain proposals were formulated by His Majesty's Government and were laid before the Arab and Jewish Delegations as the basis of an agreed settlement. Neither the Arab nor the Jewish delegation felt able to accept these proposals, and the conferences therefore did not result in an agreement. Accordingly His Majesty's Government are free to formulate their own policy, and after careful consideration they have decided to adhere generally to the proposals which were finally submitted to and discussed with the Arab and Jewish delegations. The [Mandate for Palestine](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp), the terms of which were confirmed by the Council of the League of Nations in 1922, has governed the policy of successive British Governments for nearly 20 years. It embodies the [Balfour Declaration](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/balfour.asp) and imposes on the Mandatory four main obligations. These obligations are set out in [Article 2](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp#art2), [6](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp#art6) and [13](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp#art13) of the Mandate. There is no dispute regarding the interpretation of one of these obligations, that touching the protection of and access to the Holy Places and religious building or sites. The other three main obligations are generally as follows: To place the country under such political, administrative and economic conditions as will secure the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish People. To facilitate Jewish immigration under suitable conditions, and to encourage, in cooperation with the Jewish Agency, close settlement by Jews on the Land. To safeguard the civil and religious rights of all inhabitants of Palestine irrespective of race and religion, and, whilst facilitating Jewish immigration and settlement, to ensure that the rights and position of other sections of the population are not prejudiced. To place the country under such political, administrative and economic conditions as will secure the development of self governing institutions. The Royal Commission and previous commissions of Enquiry have drawn attention to the ambiguity of certain expressions in the Mandate, such as the expression `a national home for the Jewish people', and they have found in this ambiguity and the resulting uncertainty as to the objectives of policy a fundamental cause of unrest and hostility between Arabs and Jews. His Majesty's Government are convinced that in the interests of the peace and well being of the whole people of Palestine a clear definition of policy and objectives is essential. The proposal of partition recommended by the Royal Commission would have afforded such clarity, but the establishment of self supporting independent Arab and Jewish States within Palestine has been found to be impracticable. It has therefore been necessary for His Majesty's Government to devise an alternative policy which will, consistent with their obligations to Arabs and Jews, meet the needs of the situation in Palestine. Their views and proposals are set forth below under three heads, Section I, "The Constitution", Section II. Immigration and Section III. Land. #### Section I. "The Constitution" It has been urged that the expression "a national home for the Jewish people" offered a prospect that Palestine might in due course become a Jewish State or Commonwealth. His Majesty's Government do not wish to contest the view, which was expressed by the Royal Commission, that the Zionist leaders at the time of the issue of the Balfour Declaration recognised that an ultimate Jewish State was not precluded by the terms of the Declaration. But, with the Royal Commission, His Majesty's Government believe that the framers of the [Mandate](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp) in which the [Balfour Declaration](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/balfour.asp) was embodied could not have intended that Palestine should be converted into a Jewish State against the will of the Arab population of the country. That Palestine was not to be converted into a Jewish State might be held to be implied in the passage from the [Command Paper of 1922](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/brwh1922.asp) which reads as follows "Unauthorized statements have been made to the effect that the purpose in view is to create a wholly Jewish Palestine. Phrases have been used such as that `Palestine is to become as Jewish as England is English.' His Majesty's Government regard any such expectation as impracticable and have no such aim in view. Nor have they at any time contemplated .... the disappearance or the subordination of the Arabic population, language or culture in Palestine. They would draw attention to the fact that the terms of the (Balfour) Declaration referred to do not contemplate that Palestine as a whole should be converted into a Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded IN PALESTINE." But this statement has not removed doubts, and His Majesty's Government therefore now declare unequivocally that it is not part of their policy that Palestine should become a Jewish State. They would indeed regard it as contrary to their obligations to the Arabs under the Mandate, as well as to the assurances which have been given to the Arab people in the past, that the Arab population of Palestine should be made the subjects of a Jewish State against their will. The nature of the Jewish National Home in Palestine was further described in the [Command Paper of 1922](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/brwh1922.asp) as follows "During the last two or three generations the Jews have recreated in Palestine a community now numbering 80,000, of whom about one fourth are farmers or workers upon the land. This community has its own political organs; an elected assembly for the direction of its domestic concerns; elected councils in the towns; and an organisation for the control of its schools. It has its elected Chief Rabbinate and Rabbinical Council for the direction of its religious affairs. Its business is conducted in Hebrew as a vernacular language, and a Hebrew press serves its needs. It has its distinctive intellectual life and displays considerable economic activity. This community, then, with its town and country population, its political, religious and social organisations, its own language, its own customs, its own life, has in fact `national' characteristics. When it is asked what is meant by the development of the Jewish National Home in Palestine, it may be answered that it is not the imposition of a Jewish nationality upon the inhabitants of Palestine as a whole, but the further development of the existing Jewish community, with the assistance of Jews in other parts of the world, in order that it may become a centre in which the Jewish people as a whole may take, on grounds of religion and race, an interest and pride. But in order that this community should have the best prospect of free development and provide a full opportunity for the Jewish people to display its capacities, it is essential that it should know that it is in Palestine as of right and not on sufferance. That is the reason why it is necessary that the existence of a Jewish National Home in Palestine should be internationally guaranteed, and that it should be formally recognised to rest upon ancient historic connection." His Majesty's Government adhere to this intepretation of the [(Balfour) Declaration of 1917](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/balfour.asp) and regard it as an authoritative and comprehensive description of the character of the Jewish National Home in Palestine. It envisaged the further development of the existing Jewish community with the assistance of Jews in other parts of the world. Evidence that His Majesty's Government have been carrying out their obligation in this respect is to be found in the facts that, since the statement of 1922 was published, more than 300,000 Jews have immigrated to Palestine, and that the population of the National Home has risen to some 450,000, or approaching a third of the entire population of the country. Nor has the Jewish community failed to take full advantage of the opportunities given to it. The growth of the Jewish National Home and its acheivements in many fields are a remarkable constructive effort which must command the admiration of the world and must be, in particular, a source of pride to the Jewish people. In the recent discussions the Arab delegations have repeated the contention that Palestine was included within the area in which Sir Henry McMahon, on behalf of the British Government, in October, 1915, undertook to recognise and support Arab independence. The validity of this claim, based on the terms of the correspondence which passed between Sir Henry McMahon and the Sharif of Mecca, was thoroughly and carefully investigated by the British and Arab representatives during the recent conferences in London. Their report, which has been published, states that both the Arab and the British representatives endeavoured to understand the point of view of the other party but that they were unable to reach agreement upon an interpretation of the correspondence. There is no need to summarize here the arguments presented by each side. His Majesty's Government regret the misunderstandings which have arisen as regards some of the phrases used. For their part they can only adhere, for the reasons given by their representatives in the Report, to the view that the whole of Palestine west of Jordan was excluded from Sir Henry McMahon's pledge, and they therefore cannot agree that the McMahon correspondence forms a just basis for the claim that Palestine should be converted into an Arab State. His Majesty's Government are charged as the Mandatory authority "to secure the development of self governing institutions" in Palestine. Apart from this specific obligation, they would regard it as contrary to the whole spirit of the Mandate system that the population of Palestine should remain forever under Mandatory tutelage. It is proper that the people of the country should as early as possible enjoy the rights of self-government which are exercised by the people of neighbouring countries. His Majesty's Government are unable at present to foresee the exact constitutional forms which government in Palestine will eventually take, but their objective is self government, and they desire to see established ultimately an independent Palestine State. It should be a State in which the two peoples in Palestine, Arabs and Jews, share authority in government in such a way that the essential interests of each are shared. The establishment of an independent State and the complete relinquishmnet of Mandatory control in Palestine would require such relations between the Arabs and the Jews as would make good government possible. Moreover, the growth of self governing institutions in Palestine, as in other countries, must be an evolutionary process. A transitional period will be required before independence is achieved, throughout which ultimate responsibility for the Government of the country will be retained by His Majesty's Government as the Mandatory authority, while the people of the country are taking an increasing share in the Government, and understanding and cooperation amongst them are growing. It will be the constant endeavour of His Majesty's Government to promote good relations between the Arabs and the Jews. In the light of these considerations His Majesty's Government make the following declaration of their intentions regarding the future government of Palestine: The objective of His Majesty's Government is the establishment within 10 years of an independent Palestine State in such treaty relations with the United Kingdom as will provide satisfactorily for the commercial and strategic requirements of both countries in the future. The proposal for the establishment of the independent State would involve consultation with the Council of the League of Nations with a view to the termination of the [Mandate](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp). The independent State should be one in which Arabs and Jews share government in such a way as to ensure that the essential interests of each community are safeguarded. The establishment of the independent State will be preceded by a transitional period throughout which His Majesty's Government will retain responsibility for the country. During the transitional period the people of Palestine will be given an increasing part in the government of their country. Both sections of the population will have an opportunity to participate in the machinery of government, and the process will be carried on whether or not they both avail themselves of it. As soon as peace and order have been sufficiently restored in Palestine steps will be taken to carry out this policy of giving the people of Palestine an increasing part in the government of their country, the objective being to place Palestinians in charge of all the Departments of Government, with the assistance of British advisers and subject to the control of the High Commissioner. Arab and Jewish representatives will be invited to serve as heads of Departments approximately in proportion to their respective populations. The number of Palestinians in charge of Departments will be increased as circumstances permit until all heads of Departments are Palestinians, exercising the administrative and advisory functions which are presently performed by British officials. When that stage is reached consideration will be given to the question of converting the Executive Council into a Council of Ministers with a consequential change in the status and functions of the Palestinian heads of Departments. His Majesty's Government make no proposals at this stage regarding the establishment of an elective legislature. Nevertheless they would regard this as an appropriate constitutional development, and, should public opinion in Palestine hereafter show itself in favour of such a development, they will be prepared, provided that local conditions permit, to establish the necessary machinery. At the end of five years from the restoration of peace and order, an appropriate body representative of the people of Palestine and of His Majesty's Government will be set up to review the working of the constitutional arrangements during the transitional period and to consider and make recommendations regarding the constitution of the independent Palestine State. His Majesty's Government will require to be satisfied that in the treaty contemplated by sub-paragraph (6) adequate provision has been made for: the security of, and freedom of access to the Holy Places, and protection of the interests and property of the various religious bodies. the protection of the different communities in Palestine in accordance with the obligations of His Majesty's Government to both Arabs and Jews and for the special position in Palestine of the Jewish NationalHome. such requirements to meet the strategic situation as may be regarded as necessary by His Majesty's Government in the light of the circumstances then existing. His Majesty's Government will also require to be satisfied that the interests of certain foreign countries in Palestine, for the preservation of which they are at present responsible, are adequately safeguarded. His Majesty's Government will do everything in their power to create conditions which will enable the independent Palestine State to come into being within 10 years. If, at the end of 10 years, it appears to His Majesty's Government that, contrary to their hope, circumstances require the postponement of the establishment of the independent State, they will consult with representatives of the people of Palestine, the Council of the League of Nations and the neighbouring Arab States before deciding on such a postponement. If His Majesty's Government come to the conclusion that postponement is unavoidable, they will invite the co-operation of these parties in framing plans for the future with a view to achieving the desired objective at the earliest possible date. During the transitional period steps will be taken to increase the powers and responsibilities of municipal corporations and local councils. #### Section II. Immigration Under [Article 6 of the Mandate](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp#art6), the Administration of Palestine, "while ensuring that the rights and position of other sections of the population are not prejudiced," is required to "facilitate Jewish immigration under suitable conditions." Beyond this, the extent to which Jewish immigration into Palestine is to be permitted is nowhere defined in the Mandate. But in the [Command Paper of 1922](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/brwh1922.asp) it was laid down that for the fulfilment of the policy of establishing a Jewish National Home: "it is necessary that the Jewish commun ity in Palestine should be able to increase its numbers by immigration. This immigration cannot be so great in volume as to exceed whatever may be the economic capacity of the country at the time to absorb new arrivals. It is essential to ensure that the immigrants should not be a burden upon the people of Palestine as a whole, and that they should not deprive any section of the present population of their employment." In practice, from that date onwards until recent times, the economic absorptive capacity of the country has been treated as the sole limiting factor, and in the letter which Mr. Ramsay MacDonald, as Prime Minister, sent to Dr. Weizmann in February 1931 it was laid down as a matter of policy that economic absorptive capacity was the sole criterion. This interpretation has been supported by resolutions of the Permanent Mandates Commissioner. But His Majesty's Government do not read either the Statement of Policy of 1922 or the letter of 1931 as implying that the [Mandate](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp) requires them, for all time and in all circumstances, to facilitate the immigration of Jews into Palestine subject only to consideration of the country's economic absorptive capacity. Nor do they find anything in the Mandate or in subsequent Statements of Policy to support the view that the establishment of a Jewish National Home in Palestine cannot be effected unless immigration is allowed to continue indefinitely. If immigration has an adverse effect on the economic position in the country, it should clearly be restricted; and equally, if it has a seriously damaging effect on the political position in the country, that is a factor that should not be ignored. Although it is not difficult to contend that the large number of Jewish immigrants who have been admitted so far have been absrobed economically, the fear of the Arabs that this influx will continue indefinitely until the Jewish population is in a position to dominate them has produced consequences which are extremely grave for Jews and Arabs alike and for the peace and prosperity of Palestine. The lamentable disturbances of the past three years are only the latest and most sustained manifestation of this intense Arab apprehension. The methods employed by Arab terrorists against fellow Arabs and Jews alike must receive unqualified condemnation. But it cannot be denied that fear of indefinite Jewish immigration is widespread amongst the Arab population and that this fear has made possible disturbances which have given a serious setback to economic progress, depleted the Palestine exchequer, rendered life and property insecure, and produced a bitterness between the Arab and Jewish populations which is deplorable between citizens of the same country. If in these circumstances immigration is continued up to the economic absorptive capacity of the country, regardless of all other considerations, a fatal enmity between the two peoples will be perpetuated, and the situation in Palestine may become a permanent source of friction amongst all peoples in the Near and Middle East. His Majesty's Government cannot take the view that either their obligations under the Mandate, or considerations of common sense and justice, require that they should ignore these circumstances in framing immigration policy. In the view of the Royal Commission the association of the policy of the Balfour Declaration with the Mandate system implied the belief that Arab hostility to the former would sooner or later be overcome. It has been the hope of British Governments ever since the [Balfour Declaration](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/balfour.asp) was issued that in time the Arab population, recognizing the advantages to be derived from Jewish settlement and development in Palestine, would become reconciled to the further growth of the Jewish National Home. This hope has not been fulfilled. The alternatives before His Majesty's Government are either (i) to seek to expand the Jewish National Home indefinitely by immigration, against the strongly expressed will of the Arab people of the country; or (ii) to permit further expansion of the Jewish National Home by immigration only if the Arabs are prepared to acquiesce in it. The former policy means rule by force. Apart from other considerations, such a policy seems to His Majesty's Government to be contrary to the whole spirit of [Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp#art22), as well as to their specific obligations to the Arabs in the Palestine Mandate. Moreover, the relations between the Arabs and the Jews in Palestine must be based sooner or later on mutual tolerance and goodwill; the peace, security and progress of the Jewish National Home itself requires this. Therefore His Majesty's Government, after earnest consideration, and taking into account the extent to which the growth of the Jewish National Home has been facilitated over the last twenty years, have decided that the time has come to adopt in principle the second of the alternatives referred to above. It has been urged that all further Jewish immigration into Palestine should be stopped forthwith. His Majesty's Government cannot accept such a proposal. It would damage the whole of the financial and economic system of Palestine and thus effect adversely the interests of Arabs and Jews alike. Moreover, in the view of His Majesty's Government, abruptly to stop further immigration would be unjust to the Jewish National Home. But, above all, His Majesty's Government are conscious of the present unhappy plight of large numbers of Jews who seek refuge from certain European countries, and they believe that Palestine can and should make a further contribution to the solution of this pressing world problem. In all these circumstances, they believe that they will be acting consistently with their Mandatory obligations to both Arabs and Jews, and in the manner best calculated to serve the interests of the whole people of Palestine, by adopting the following proposals regarding immigration: Jewish immigration during the next five years will be at a rate which, if economic absorptive capacity permits, will bring the Jewish population up to approximately one third of the total population of the country. Taking into account the expected natural increase of the Arab and Jewish populations, and the number of illegal Jewish immigrants now in the country, this would allow of the admission, as from the beginning of April this year, of some 75,000 immigrants over the next five years. These immigrants would, subject to the criterion of economic absorptive capacity, be admitted as follows: For each of the next five years a quota of 10,000 Jewish immigrants will be allowed on the understanding that a shortage one year may be added to the quotas for subsequent years, within the five year period, if economic absorptive capacity permits. In addition, as a contribution towards the solution of the Jewish refugee problem, 25,000 refugees will be admitted as soon as the High Commissioner is satisfied that adequate provision for their maintenance is ensured, special consideration being given to refugee children anddependents. The existing machinery for ascertaining economic absorptive capacity will be retained, and the High Commissioner will have the ultimate responsibility for deciding the limits of economic capacity. Before each periodic decision is taken, Jewish and Arab representatives will be consulted. After the period of five years, no further Jewish immigration will be permitted unless the Arabs of Palestine are prepared to acquiesce in it. His Majesty's Government are determined to check illegal immigration, and further preventive measures are being adopted. The numbers of any Jewish illegal immigrants who, despite these measures, may succeed in coming into the country and cannot be deported will be deducted from the yearly quotas. His Majesty's Government are satisfied that, when the immigration over five years which is now contemplated has taken place, they will not be justified in facilitating, nor will they be under any obligation to facilitate, the further development of the Jewish National Home by immigration regardless of the wishes of the Arab population. #### Section III. Land The Administration of Palestine is required, under [Article 6 of the Mandate](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/palmanda.asp#art6), "while ensuring that the rights and position of other sections of the population are not prejudiced," to encourage "close settlement by Jews on the land," and no restriction has been imposed hitherto on the transfer of land from Arabs to Jews. The Reports of several expert Commissions have indictaed that, owing to the natural growth of the Arab population and the steady sale in recent years of Arab land to Jews, there is now in certain areas no room for further transfers of Arab land, whilst in some other areas such transfers of land must be restricted if Arab cultivators are to maintain their existing standard of life and a considerable landless Arab population is not soon to be created. In these circumstances, the High Commissioner will be given general powers to prohibit and regulate transfers of land. These powers will date from the publication of this statement of policy and the High Commissioner will retain them throughout the transitional period. The policy of the Government will be directed towards the development of the land and the improvement, where possible, of methods of cultivation. In the light of such development it will be open to the High Commissioner, should he be satisfied that the "rights and position" of the Arab population will be duly preserved, to review and modify any orders passed relating to the prohibition or restriction of the transfer of land. In framing these proposals His Majesty's Government have sincerely endeavoured to act in strict accordance with their obligations under the Mandate to both the Arabs and the Jews. The vagueness of the phrases employed in some instances to describe these obligations has led to controversy and has made the task of interpretation difficult. His Majesty's Government cannot hope to satisfy the partisans of one party or the other in such controversy as the Mandate has aroused. Their purpose is to be just as between the two people in Palestine whose destinies in that country have been affected by the great events of recent years, and who, since they live side by side, must learn to practice mutual tolerance, goodwill and co operation. In looking to the future, His Majesty's Government are not blind to the fact that some events of the past make the task of creating these relations difficult; but they are encouraged by the knowledge that as many times and in many places in Palestine during recent years the Arab and Jewish inhabitants have lived in friendship together. Each community has much to contribute to the welfare of their common land, and each must earnestly desire peace in which to assist in increasing the well being of the whole people of the country. The responsibility which falls on them, no less than upon His Majesty's Government, to co operate together to ensure peace is all the more solemn because their country is revered by many millions of Moslems, Jews and Christians throughout the world who pray for peace in Palestine and for the happiness of her people. \[1\] [https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th\_century/brwh1939.asp](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/brwh1939.asp) # Aliyah Bet ***Aliyah Bet*** ([Hebrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language"): עלייה ב׳, "[Aliyah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah "Aliyah") 'B'" – [bet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bet_(letter) "Bet (letter)") being the second letter of the [Hebrew alphabet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet)) was the code name given to illegal immigration to [Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") from 1920 to 1948 by [Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews "Jews"), mostly from Europe. In the 1930s and 1940s, many were [refugees](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_escaping_from_German-occupied_Europe "Jews escaping from German-occupied Europe") escaping from [Nazi Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") or other Nazi-controlled countries.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Aliyah-Bet-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-2) In the postwar years, they included [Holocaust survivors](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_survivors "Holocaust survivors").[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Aliyah-Bet-1)[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Aftermath-3)[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-4) The later immigration to Palestine[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Aliyah-Bet-1) violated restrictions laid out in the British [White Paper of 1939](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Paper_of_1939 "White Paper of 1939"), but nonetheless the numbers dramatically increased between 1939 and 1948.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Aftermath-3) With the [establishment of the State of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Establishment_of_the_State_of_Israel "Establishment of the State of Israel") in May 1948, Jewish displaced persons and refugees from Europe began streaming into the new state in the midst of the [1948 Palestine war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Palestine_war "1948 Palestine war").[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Aftermath-3) In modern-day [Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel "Israel"), it has also been called by the Hebrew term ***Ha'apala*** (Hebrew: הַעְפָּלָה, "Ascension"). Those who underwent Ha'apala are known as ***Ma'apilim**.* The *Aliyah Bet* is distinguished from the *Aliyah Aleph* ("Aliyah 'A'", [Aleph](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleph_(Hebrew) "Aleph (Hebrew)") being the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet), which refers to the limited Jewish immigration permitted by British authorities during the same period. The name *Aliya B* is also shortened for *Aliya Bilti Legalit* (Hebrew: עלייה בלתי־לגאלית,lit. 'illegal immigration'). [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/4Wiimage.png) The Palmach, Immigration to Israel #### History Over 100,000 people attempted to illegally enter Mandatory Palestine. There were 142 voyages by 120 ships. Over half were stopped by the British patrols. The [Royal Navy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") had eight ships on station in Palestine, and additional ships were tasked with tracking suspicious vessels heading for Palestine. Most of the intercepted immigrants were sent to [internment camps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_internment_camps "Cyprus internment camps") in [Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus "Cyprus"): (Karaolos near [Famagusta](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famagusta "Famagusta"), [Nicosia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicosia "Nicosia"), [Dhekelia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhekelia_Cantonment "Dhekelia Cantonment"), and [Xylotymbou](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylotymbou "Xylotymbou"). Some were sent to the [Atlit detention camp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlit_detainee_camp "Atlit detainee camp") in Palestine, and some to [Mauritius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritius "Mauritius"). The British held as many as 50,000 people in these camps (see [Jews in British camps on Cyprus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_in_British_camps_on_Cyprus "Jews in British camps on Cyprus")). Over 1,600 drowned at sea. Only a few thousand actually entered Palestine. The pivotal event in *Ha'apala* program was the [*Exodus*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Exodus "SS Exodus") incident in 1947. *Exodus* was intercepted and boarded by a [Royal Navy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") patrol. Despite significant resistance, passengers from *Exodus* were forcibly returned to Europe, and eventually put in camps in Germany. This was publicized, to the great embarrassment of the British government. One account of Aliyah Bet is given by journalist [I. F. Stone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I._F._Stone "I. F. Stone") in his 1946 book [*Underground to Palestine*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underground_to_Palestine "Underground to Palestine")*,* a first-person account of traveling from Europe with displaced persons attempting to reach the Jewish homeland.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-7) More than 300 volunteers, most of them American World War II veterans, including [Murray Greenfield](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Greenfield) (of the ship [*HaTikva*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HaTikva_(ship) "HaTikva (ship)")), volunteered to sail ten ships ("The Jews' Secret Fleet") from the United States to Europe to load 35,000 survivors of the Holocaust (half of the illegal immigrants to Palestine), only to be deported to detention camps on Cyprus. #### Before World War II - n 1934, the first attempt to bring in a large number of illegal immigrants by sea happened when some 350 Jews sailed on the *Vallos*, a chartered ship, without the permission of the [Jewish Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Agency "Jewish Agency"), who feared illegal immigration would cause the British to restrict legal immigration. She arrived off the coast of Palestine on 25 August, and the passengers disembarked with the help of the [Haganah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haganah "Haganah"), which received special permission to assist them. - On 29 July 1939, the *Colorado*, flying under the Panamanian flag and carrying 378 Jewish refugees from Europe was intercepted by the British; the illegal immigrants were arrested and taken into Haifa.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-FRUS1096-8) - On 19 August, the *Aghios Nicolaus*, a Greek owned ship, transferred 840 immigrants to smaller vessels off the coast and sent them to shore.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-FRUS1096-8) - On 23 August, the *Parita*, carrying some 700 refugees on board, was deliberately beached at Tel Aviv by the passengers, the captain and crew having fled in a small boat.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-FRUS1096-8) [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/I0vimage.png) SS *Parita* aground off Tel Aviv, August 1939 [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/oQjimage.png) SS *Patria* sinking in Haifa port #### During World War II - On 2 September, the *Tiger Hill*, a 1,499-ton ship built in 1887, was intercepted and fired on by [Royal Navy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") gunboats off [Tel Aviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv"), killing two passengers (Dr Robert Schneider and Zvi Binder); the ship HMCS *Belleville* beached on the shore with 1,205 immigrants on board; the *Tiger Hill* had sailed from [Constanţa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constan%C5%A3a "Constanţa"), Romania, on 3 August 1939, with about 750 immigrants on board and had taken on board the passengers from the *Frossoula*, another illegal immigrant ship that was marooned in [Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon "Lebanon").[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-FRUS1096-8)[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Holmes-9)[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-10)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Ziedenberg-11) - On 16 September, the *Rudnitchan* transferred 364 Jewish refugees into five lifeboats outside the territorial waters of the Mandate and sent them ashore as illegal immigrants.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-FRUS1096-8) - On 19 September, the *Noemi Julia*, sailing from Sulina in Romania with 1,130 Jewish refugees from Europe on board was intercepted in the Mediterranean by a British warship and forced to Haifa port; fearing that they would be sent back, the illegal immigrants engaged in passive resistance; the British authorities brought them ashore and held them in a detention camp; they were released a month later.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-FRUS1096-8)[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Ziedenberg-11) - On 24–25 November 1939, a large group of immigrants traveled by train from [Vienna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna "Vienna") to [Bratislava](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava "Bratislava") and about 2 weeks later sailed from there on the riverboat *Uranus* down the [Danube](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube "Danube"). At the [Romanian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania "Romania") border, the three smaller riverboats to which they had been transferred on December 14 on entering [Yugoslavia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia") were intercepted and the immigrants were forced to disembark at the old fortress town of [Kladovo](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladovo "Kladovo").[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-12) About 1,100 refugees were stranded there and came to be known as the [Kladovo-Sabac Group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kladovo_transport "Kladovo transport"). In May 1941, they were still in Yugoslavia, where 915 of them were caught and eventually killed by the invading Nazis. The 800 men were shot by Nazi soldiers in a farmer's field at Zasavica; after the war, the remains of the men were re-interred in a mass grave in the Belgrade Sephardi Cemetery. The women and children were imprisoned in the Sajmiste concentration camp where they perished from hunger, disease, exposure to the bitter cold winter weather, or gassed to death in a mobile gas truck. - On 18 May 1940 the old Italian paddle steamer *Pencho* sailed from [Bratislava](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava "Bratislava"), with 514 passengers, mostly [Betar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betar "Betar") members. The *Pencho* sailed down the [Danube](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube "Danube") to the [Black Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea "Black Sea") and into the [Aegean Sea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea "Aegean Sea"). On 9 October, her engines failed and she was wrecked off [Mytilene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mytilene "Mytilene"), in the Italian-ruled [Dodecanese](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodecanese "Dodecanese") Islands. The Italians rescued the passengers and took them to [Rhodes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodes "Rhodes"). All but two were then placed in an internment camp at [Ferramonti di Tarsia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferramonti_di_Tarsia "Ferramonti di Tarsia") in southern Italy. They were held there until [Allied](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") forces liberated the area in September 1943.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-Pentcho-13) - In October 1940, a large group of refugees were allowed to leave Vienna. The exodus was organized by Berthold Storfer, a Jewish businessman who worked under [Adolf Eichmann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Eichmann "Adolf Eichmann"). They took four river boats, *Uranus*, *Schönbrunn*, *Helios*, and *Melk*, down the Danube to Romania, where the *Uranus* passengers, about 1,000, boarded the [*Pacific*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patria_disaster#Background "Patria disaster"), and sailed on 11 October 1940. They arrived at [Haifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa "Haifa") on 1 November, followed by the [*Milos*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Milos_(1878)?action=edit&redlink=1 "SS Milos (1878) (page does not exist)") a few days later. The British transferred all the immigrants to the French liner [SS *Patria*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Patria_(1913) "SS Patria (1913)") to take them for internment to Mauritius. To stop the *Patria* from sailing, the [Haganah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haganah "Haganah") [smuggled a bomb aboard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patria_disaster "Patria disaster"). The explosion holed her side, capsizing her and killing around 260 people. The British, by order of [Winston Churchill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill "Winston Churchill"), allowed the survivors to remain in Palestine.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-:0-14) - In December 1940 the *Salvador*, a small [Bulgarian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria "Bulgaria") schooner formerly named *Tsar Krum*, left [Burgas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgas "Burgas") with 327 refugees. On December 12 the *Salvador* was wrecked in a violent storm in the [Sea of Marmara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara "Sea of Marmara"), near [Istanbul](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul "Istanbul"). 223 persons, including 66 children, lost their lives. The survivors were taken to Istanbul. 125 survivors were deported back to Bulgaria, and the remaining 70 left on the *Darien* (No. 66).[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-15) - On 11 December 1941, the [*Struma*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Struma "MV Struma") sailed from [Constanţa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constan%C5%A3a "Constanţa") carrying between 760 and 790 refugees. Three days later she reached Istanbul, where Turkey detained her and her passengers for 10 weeks. On 23 February 1942, Turkish authorities towed her back into the Black Sea and cast her adrift. Early the next day the [*Shch-213*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_submarine_Shch-213 "Soviet submarine Shch-213") [torpedoed and sank her](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struma_disaster "Struma disaster"). Between 767 and 791 people were killed, and there was only one survivor.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-16) - On 20 September 1942, the *Europa* sailed from Romania with 21 passengers. She was wrecked in the [Bosphorus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosphorus "Bosphorus"). - On 21 April 1944, the *Belasitza* sailed from Romania with 273 passengers including 120 children, who went from Istanbul to Palestine by sealed train. - On 5 August 1944, *Bulbul*, [*Mefküre*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Mefk%C3%BCre "MV Mefküre") and *Morino* sailed from Constanţa carrying about 1,000 refugees between them. In the night the [Soviet submarine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shchuka-class_submarine "Shchuka-class submarine") [*Shch-215*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_submarine_Shch-215 "Soviet submarine Shch-215") sank *Mefküre* by torpedo and shellfire, and then machine-gunned survivors in the water.[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-17) Between 289 and 394 refugees plus seven crew were aboard *Mefküre*; only the crew and five refugees survived. *Bulbul* rescued the few survivors and took them to Turkey.[\[1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet#cite_note-18) [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/CQaimage.png) SS *Tiger Hill* aground off Haifa, September 1, 1939 # Yishuv The **Yishuv** ([Hebrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language"): ישוב,[lit.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation "Literal translation") 'settlement'), **HaYishuv Ha'ivri** ([Hebrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language"): הישוב העברי,[lit.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation "Literal translation") 'the [Hebrew](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrews#Use_in_Zionism "Hebrews") settlement'), or **HaYishuv HaYehudi Be'Eretz Yisra'el** (lit. 'the Jewish Settlement in the Land of Israel') was the community of [Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews "Jews") residing in [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_(region) "Palestine (region)") prior to the establishment of the [State of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Israel "State of Israel") in 1948. The Yishuv was also referred to as the [Palestinian Jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_Jews "Palestinian Jews") community.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-1) The term Yishuv came into use in the 1880s, when there were about 25,000 Jews living in that region, and continued to be used until 1948, by which time there were some 630,000 Jews there.[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-2) The term is still in use to denote the pre-1948 Jewish residents in Palestine, corresponding to the southern part of [Ottoman Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Syria "Ottoman Syria") until 1918, [OETA South](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration "Occupied Enemy Territory Administration") in 1917–1920, and [Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") in 1920–1948.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-3) A distinction is sometimes drawn between the [*Old Yishuv*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Yishuv "Old Yishuv") and the [*New Yishuv*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#New_Yishuv). 'Old Yishuv' refers to all the Jews living in Palestine before the first [Zionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionist_movement "Zionist movement") immigration wave ([*aliyah*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah "Aliyah")) of 1882, and to their descendants until 1948. The Old Yishuv residents were religious Jews, living mainly in [Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem"), [Safed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safed "Safed"), [Tiberias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberias "Tiberias"), and [Hebron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebron "Hebron"). There were smaller communities in [Jaffa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffa "Jaffa"), [Haifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa "Haifa"), [Peki'in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peki'in "Peki'in"), [Acre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre,_Israel "Acre, Israel"), [Nablus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nablus "Nablus"), [Shfaram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shfaram "Shfaram"), and until 1799[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-benayahu-4) in [Gaza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_City "Gaza City"). In the final centuries before modern Zionism,\[[**clarification needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify "Wikipedia:Please clarify")\] a large part of the Old Yishuv spent their time studying the [Torah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah "Torah") and lived off charity ([halukka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halukka "Halukka")), donated by Jews in the [diaspora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_diaspora "Jewish diaspora").[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-5)\[[**clarification needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify "Wikipedia:Please clarify")\] The term 'New Yishuv' refers to those who adopted a new approach, based on economic independence and various national ideologies, rather than strictly religious reasons for settling in the "Holy Land".\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] The precursors began building homes outside the [Old City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_City_(Jerusalem) "Old City (Jerusalem)") walls of Jerusalem in the 1860s, followed soon after by the founders of the [moshava](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshava "Moshava") of [Petah Tikva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petah_Tikva "Petah Tikva"), with growth in full swing during the [First Aliyah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Aliyah "First Aliyah") of 1882, followed by the founding of neighbourhoods and villages until the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. #### Ottoman rule The Old Yishuv were the Jewish communities of southern [Ottoman Syria](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Syria "Ottoman Syria") in the [Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire"),[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-6) up to the onset of Zionist [aliyah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah "Aliyah") and the consolidation of the New Yishuv by the end of World War I in 1918 and the establishment of the British [Mandate for Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine "Mandate for Palestine"). The Old Yishuv had continuously resided in Palestine and was largely made up of [ultra-Orthodox Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-Orthodox_Jews "Ultra-Orthodox Jews") dependent on external donations ([Halukka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halukka "Halukka")) for living, as opposed to the later Zionist aliyah and the New Yishuv, who were more socialist-leaning and secular, emphasizing labor and self-sufficiency.\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] The Old Yishuv developed after a period of severe decline in Jewish communities of the Southern [Levant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant "Levant") during the [early Middle Ages](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages "Early Middle Ages"), and was composed of three clusters. The oldest group consisted of the [Ladino](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish "Judaeo-Spanish")-speaking [Sephardic Jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardic_Jew "Sephardic Jew") communities in [Galilee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilee "Galilee") and the [Judeo-Arabic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Arabic "Judeo-Arabic") speaking [Musta'arabi Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musta'arabi_Jews "Musta'arabi Jews") who settled in Eretz Yisrael in the Ottoman and late [Mamluk period](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo) "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)"). A second group was composed of [Ashkenazi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkenazi "Ashkenazi") and [Hasidic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasidic "Hasidic") Jews who had emigrated from Europe in the 18th and early 19th centuries. A third wave was constituted by Yishuv members who arrived in the late 19th century.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-7) The Old Yishuv was thus generally divided into two independent communities – the [Sephardi Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardi_Jews "Sephardi Jews") (including Musta'arabim), mainly constituting the remains of Jewish communities of [Galilee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilee "Galilee") and the [Four Holy Cities](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Holy_Cities "Four Holy Cities") of Judaism, which had flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries; and the [Ashkenazi Jews](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews "Ashkenazi Jews"), whose immigration from Europe was primarily since the 18th century.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-Bloch-8) The *Old Yishuv* term was coined by members of the 'New Yishuv' in the late 19th century to distinguish themselves from the economically dependent and generally earlier Jewish communities, who mainly resided in the four holy cities, and unlike the New Yishuv, had not embraced land ownership and agriculture. Apart from the Old Yishuv centres in the four holy cities of Judaism, namely [Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem"), [Hebron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebron "Hebron"), [Tiberias](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberias "Tiberias") and [Safed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safed "Safed"), smaller communities also existed in [Jaffa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffa "Jaffa"), [Haifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa "Haifa"), [Peki'in](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peki'in "Peki'in"), [Acre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre,_Israel "Acre, Israel"), [Nablus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nablus "Nablus") and [Shfaram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shfaram "Shfaram"). [Petah Tikva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petah_Tikva "Petah Tikva"), although established in 1878 by the Old Yishuv, nevertheless was also supported by the arriving Zionists. [Rishon LeZion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishon_LeZion "Rishon LeZion"), the first settlement founded by the [Hovevei Zion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovevei_Zion "Hovevei Zion") in 1882, could be considered the true beginning of the *New Yishuv*.[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-9) [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/tYfimage.png) [Jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews "Jews") community in the [Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutasarrifate_of_Jerusalem "Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem") under [Ottoman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") rule, 1895 #### Beginning of modern Aliyah (New Yishuv) The Ottoman government was not supportive of the new settlers from the First and Second Aliyah, as the Ottoman government officially restricted Jewish immigration. The Yishuv relied on money from abroad to support their settlements. In 1908, the Zionist Organization founded the [Palestine Office](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Office?action=edit&redlink=1 "Palestine Office (page does not exist)") \[[he](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%93%20%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99 "he:המשרד הארצישראלי")\], under [Arthur Ruppin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Ruppin "Arthur Ruppin"), for land acquisition, agricultural settlement and training,[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-10) and later for urban expansion. The first Hebrew high schools were opened in Palestine as well as the [Technion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technion "Technion"), the first institution for higher learning. [Hashomer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashomer "Hashomer"), a Zionist self-defence group, was created to protect the Jewish settlements. Labor organizations were created along with health and cultural services, all later coordinated by the [Jewish National Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_National_Council "Jewish National Council"). By 1914, the old Yishuv was a minority, and the New Yishuv began to express itself and its [Zionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionism "Zionism") goals. The [First Aliyah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Aliyah "First Aliyah") was the very beginning of the creation of the New Yishuv. More than 25,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine. The immigrants were inspired by the notion of creating a national home for Jews. Most of the Jewish immigrants came from Russia, escaping the [pogroms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pogrom "Pogrom"), while some arrived from Yemen. Many of the immigrants were affiliated with [Hovevei Zion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovevei_Zion "Hovevei Zion"). Hovevei Zion purchased land from Arabs and other Ottoman subjects and created various settlements such as [Yesud HaMa'ala](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yesud_HaMa'ala "Yesud HaMa'ala"), [Rosh Pinna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosh_Pinna "Rosh Pinna"), [Gedera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gedera "Gedera"), [Rishon LeZion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishon_LeZion "Rishon LeZion"), [Nes Tziona](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nes_Tziona "Nes Tziona") and [Rechovot](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechovot "Rechovot"). These agricultural settlements were supported by philanthropists from abroad, chiefly [Edmond James de Rothschild](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_James_de_Rothschild "Edmond James de Rothschild"). and [Alphonse James de Rothschild](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_James_de_Rothschild "Alphonse James de Rothschild").[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-11) [Eliezer Ben-Yehuda](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliezer_Ben-Yehuda "Eliezer Ben-Yehuda") also immigrated during the first Aliyah. Ben-Yehuda took it upon himself to revive the Hebrew language, and along with [Nissim Bechar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissim_Bechar?action=edit&redlink=1 "Nissim Bechar (page does not exist)") started a school for teaching Hebrew, later on founding the first Hebrew newspaper. During the Second Aliyah, between 1903 and 1914, there were 35,000 new immigrants, primarily from the [Russian Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"). During [World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), the conditions for the Jews in the Ottoman Empire worsened. All those Jews who were of an enemy nationality were exiled and others were drafted into the Ottoman army. Many of those exiled fled to [Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") and the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States"). Those who remained in the Ottoman ruled Palestine faced hard economic times. There was disagreement whether to support the British or the Turks. A clandestine group, [Nili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nili "Nili"), was established to pass information to the British in the hope of defeating the Ottomans and ending their rule over Palestine. The purpose and members of the Nili were discovered. All involved were executed by the Ottomans except its founder, [Aaron Aaronsohn](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Aaronsohn "Aaron Aaronsohn"), who escaped to Egypt. During World War I, the Jewish population in Palestine diminished by a third due to deportations, immigration, economic trouble and disease. In 1915, the [British Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army "British Army") recruited Yishuv Jews who had been exiled to Egypt into the Zion Mule Corps, which provided logistical support during the [Gallipoli campaign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign "Gallipoli campaign"). Subsequently, the British established the [Jewish Legion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Legion "Jewish Legion"), which participated in the British conquest of Ottoman Syria (including Palestine), leading to the Turkish surrender. The Jewish Legion's soldiers were predominantly diaspora Jews, but after British forces entered Palestine, a battalion of local Jews was recruited, which carried out support roles and guarded prisoners. #### Paramilitary forces See [Bar-Giora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar-Giora_(organisation) "Bar-Giora (organisation)"), [Hamagen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamagen "Hamagen"), Hanoter, and [Hashomer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashomer "Hashomer"). #### During the British Mandate [World War I](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I) saw the [dissolution of the Ottoman Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire "Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire") and the division of its territory. The [Sykes–Picot Agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement "Sykes–Picot Agreement") led to a division of Ottoman territory between British and French rule, and the [McMahon–Hussein correspondence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMahon%E2%80%93Hussein_correspondence "McMahon–Hussein correspondence") "ambiguously omitted" the region of Palestine from what was promised to become an Arab state to the Hashemite sharif.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-12) The British then worked to follow through on the [Balfour Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Declaration "Balfour Declaration") of 1917, that announced British support for the [Zionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionism "Zionism") aspiration to establish "a national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-13)[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-:3-14) The Jewish population was variously estimated at less than 10% of the [population of Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Palestine_(region) "Demographic history of Palestine (region)") before the beginning of [British Mandatory rule](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") (1920–1948)[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-:3-14) to slightly more at the beginning.[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-15) Under British rule Jewish immigration, the majority from Europe, led to the rapid growth of the Yishuv. It referred to this immigration in Hebrew as [aliyah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah "Aliyah"), meaning "going up", giving it an ideological and religious connotation unlike immigration to other places.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-16) Additional [Jewish land purchases in Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_land_purchase_in_Palestine "Jewish land purchase in Palestine") enabled the establishment of more farming communities known as [*moshavim*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshav "Moshav") and [*kibbutzim*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibbutz "Kibbutz"). The [League of Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") codified support for the eventual "establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people" into the [foundational document](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine "Mandate for Palestine") of the British Mandate in Palestine, thereby facilitating what detractors later regarded not as aliyah, or the flight of refugees from Nazi and Fascist atrocities,[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-17) but as the Zionist colonization of Palestine.[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-:3-14)[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-18)[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-:0-19): xx The Yishuv had a level of international recognition that the [Arab Higher Committee](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Higher_Committee "Arab Higher Committee"), the governing body of the Arab majority in Mandatory Palestine did not have. At times the British referred to the Arabs only as "non-Jewish communities".[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-:0-19) #### Parliamentary representation and self-government A department of the [World Zionist Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Zionist_Organization "World Zionist Organization") became the [Jewish Agency for Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel#Jewish_Agency_for_Palestine_1929%E2%80%931948 "Jewish Agency for Israel"), and later the [Jewish Agency for Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel "Jewish Agency for Israel"). The agency and representative bodies were set up to enable self government.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-20) The Assembly of Representatives was the elected parliamentary assembly of the Jewish community in [Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine"). It was established on 19 April 1920,[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-21) and functioned until 13 February 1949, the day before the [first Knesset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949_Israeli_legislative_election "1949 Israeli legislative election"), elected on 25 January, was sworn in. The Assembly met once a year to elect the executive body, the Jewish National Council,[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-K-22) which was responsible for education, local government, welfare, security and defense.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-23) It also voted on the budgets proposed by the Jewish National Council and the Rabbinical Council.[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-K-22) The [Jewish National Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_National_Council "Jewish National Council") (ועד לאומי *Va'ad Le'umi*) was also known as the General Council of the Jewish Community of Palestine.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-24) Yishuv governing institutions were recognized by the British government and created a [quasi state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-state "Quasi-state") as well as a structure of self-governing institutions that legitimately represented the Jewish population.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-:0-19)[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-:2-25) It was "recognized as a public body for the purpose of advising and cooperating with the Administration of Palestine", and it was entitled to diplomatic representation in the League of Nations [Permanent Mandates Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_Mandates_Commission "Permanent Mandates Commission") in Geneva, as well as in London and elsewhere.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-:0-19) These were given quasi-official diplomatic status by Britain and the [League of Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations"), giving the Yishuv's governing bodies international legitimacy.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-:0-19): 45 #### Paramilitary forces Main articles: [Haganah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haganah "Haganah"), [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun"), and [Lehi (group)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(group) "Lehi (group)") See also: [Zionist political violence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionist_political_violence "Zionist political violence") The most notable Jewish paramilitaries in the [British Mandate of Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") were the [Haganah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haganah "Haganah"), the [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun") and [Lehi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(group) "Lehi (group)"). In October 1945, during the [Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_insurgency_in_Mandatory_Palestine "Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine"), those organizations joined to form the [Jewish Resistance Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Resistance_Movement "Jewish Resistance Movement"). It was established by the [Jewish Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Agency "Jewish Agency") and activated for some ten months, until August, 1946.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv#cite_note-Agency-26) The alliance coordinated acts of sabotage and attacks against British authorities. \[1\] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv) # Biltmore Conference The **Biltmore Conference**, also known by its resolution as the **Biltmore Program**, was a fundamental departure from traditional [Zionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionist "Zionist") policy, prompted by the [White Paper of 1939](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Paper_of_1939 "White Paper of 1939") and the ongoing [Holocaust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust "Holocaust"),[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-ajcarchives.org-1) that sought "that Palestine be established as a **Jewish Commonwealth**."[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-2) The meeting was held in [New York City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City "New York City"), at the prestigious [Biltmore Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Biltmore_Hotel "New York Biltmore Hotel"), from May 6 to May 11, 1942, with 600 delegates and Zionist leaders from 18 countries attending.[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-3) This marked the first time that Zionist leaders called for the establishment of a Jewish state.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-4) The program has been described by a number of historians as "a virtual [coup d’état](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coup_d%E2%80%99etat "Coup d’etat")" within Zionism since the movement's more moderate leaders were replaced by leaders with more aggressive goals.[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-Gelvin2014-5) #### History Prior to this Extraordinary Zionist Conference at the Biltmore, official Zionism had steadfastly refused to formulate the ultimate aim of the movement but preferred to concentrate on the practical task of building the [Jewish National Home](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_National_Home "Jewish National Home"). The Biltmore Program became the official Zionist stand on the ultimate aim of the movement.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-ajcarchives.org-1) According to Ben-Gurion, the "first and essential" stage of the program was the immigration of two million additional Jews to Palestine. In 1944, a [One Million Plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Million_Plan "One Million Plan") would become the official policy of the Zionist leadership.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-6) There was no reference to the Arab population prevailing in [Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine"), which, according to [Anita Shapira](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita_Shapira "Anita Shapira"), marked a transition to the view that conflict was inevitable between the Arabs and Jews and could only be resolved by the sword.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-7) The major shift at Biltmore was prompted by intense common opposition to the British [White Paper of 1939](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Paper_of_1939 "White Paper of 1939"), which interpreted the terms of the Mandate in a way that would freeze "the Jewish community to a permanent minority status", and the negative situation during the war. The shift was prompted also by the realization that America would play a larger part in fulfillment of Zionist designs after the war.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-8) Official Zionism’s firm unequivocal stand did not please everyone, however. The pro-British [Chaim Weizmann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann "Chaim Weizmann") had bristled at it. Also, binationalists such as [Henrietta Szold](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_Szold "Henrietta Szold") and [Judah L. Magnes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judah_L._Magnes "Judah L. Magnes") rejected the stand and broke off to establish their own party, [Ichud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihud "Ihud") ("Unification"), which advocated an Arab–Jewish federation. Opposition to the Biltmore Program also led to the founding of the anti-Zionist [American Council for Judaism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Council_for_Judaism "American Council for Judaism").[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-9) Various Zionist organizations were represented in the American Emergency Committee of Zionist Affairs, which called an "Extraordinary Zionist Conference" as a substitute for the full (22nd) Zionist Congress, which had been cancelled because of [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). Attendees included [Chaim Weizmann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Weizmann "Chaim Weizmann"), as President of the [Zionist Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionist_Organization "Zionist Organization"); [David Ben-Gurion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion"), as Chairman of the [Jewish Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Agency "Jewish Agency") Executive; and [Nahum Goldmann](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahum_Goldmann "Nahum Goldmann"), as a member of the Executive of the [Zionist Organization of America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionist_Organization_of_America "Zionist Organization of America").[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-Mideast_Web-10) The four main organisations of American Jewry represented were the Zionist Organization of America, [Hadassah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadassah_Women's_Zionist_Organization_of_America "Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America"), [Mizrahi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_Zionists_of_America "Religious Zionists of America"), and [Poale Zion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poale_Zion "Poale Zion").\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] Among the American organizers was Reform Rabbi [Abba Hillel Silver](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abba_Hillel_Silver "Abba Hillel Silver"). #### Declaration The joint statement issued at the end of the session was known as the Biltmore Program. It asked for unrestricted [Jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew "Jew") immigration to [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_(region) "Palestine (region)"). Here is the full text of the program: 1. *American Zionists assembled in this Extraordinary Conference reaffirm their unequivocal devotion to the cause of democratic freedom and international justice to which the people of the United States, allied with the* [*other United Nations*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Charter "Atlantic Charter")*, have dedicated themselves, and give expression to their faith in the ultimate victory of humanity and justice over lawlessness and brute force.* 2. *This Conference offers a message of hope and encouragement to their fellow Jews in the Ghettos and concentration camps of Hitler-dominated Europe and prays that their hour of liberation may not be far distant.* 3. *The Conference sends its warmest greetings to the Jewish Agency Executive in Jerusalem, to the Va`ad Leumi, and to the whole Yishuv in Palestine, and expresses its profound admiration for their steadfastness and achievements in the face of peril and great difficulties ...* 4. *In our generation, and in particular in the course of the past twenty years, the Jewish people have awakened and transformed their ancient homeland; from 50,000 at the end of the last war their numbers have increased to more than 500,000. They have made the waste places to bear fruit and the desert to blossom. Their pioneering achievements in agriculture and in industry, embodying new patterns of cooperative endeavour, have written a notable page in the history of colonization.* 5. *In the new values thus created, their Arab neighbours in Palestine have shared. The Jewish people in its own work of national redemption welcomes the economic, agricultural and national development of the Arab peoples and states. The Conference reaffirms the stand previously adopted at Congresses of the World Zionist Organization, expressing the readiness and the desire of the Jewish people for full cooperation with their Arab neighbours.* 6. *The Conference calls for the fulfillment of the original purpose of the Balfour Declaration and the Mandate which recognizing the historical connection of the Jewish people with Palestine' was to afford them the opportunity, as stated by President Wilson, to found there a Jewish Commonwealth. The Conference affirms its unalterable rejection of the White Paper of May 1939 and denies its moral or legal validity. The White Paper seeks to limit, and in fact to nullify Jewish rights to immigration and settlement in Palestine, and, as stated by Mr. Winston Churchill in the House of Commons in May 1939, constitutes `a breach and repudiation of the Balfour Declaration'. The policy of the White Paper is cruel and indefensible in its denial of sanctuary to Jews fleeing from Nazi persecution; and at a time when Palestine has become a focal point in the war front of the United Nations, and Palestine Jewry must provide all available manpower for farm and factory and camp, it is in direct conflict with the interests of the allied war effort.* 7. *In the struggle against the forces of aggression and tyranny, of which Jews were the earliest victims, and which now menace the Jewish National Home, recognition must be given to the right of the Jews of Palestine to play their full part in the war effort and in the defence of their country, through a Jewish military force fighting under its own flag and under the high command of the United Nations.* 8. *The Conference declares that the new world order that will follow victory cannot be established on foundations of peace, justice and equality, unless the problem of Jewish homelessness is finally solved. The Conference urges that the gates of Palestine be opened; that the Jewish Agency be vested with control of immigration into Palestine and with the necessary authority for upbuilding the country, including the development of its unoccupied and uncultivated lands; and that Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth integrated in the structure of the new democratic world.* *Then and only then will the age old wrong to the Jewish people be righted.*[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-11)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-12)[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference#cite_note-13) After approval by the [Zionist General Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionist_General_Council "Zionist General Council") in Palestine, the Biltmore Program was adopted as the platform of the World Zionist Organization. \[1\] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore\_Conference](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biltmore_Conference) # Churchill White Paper The **Churchill White Paper** of 3 June 1922 (sometimes referred to as "British Policy in Palestine") was drafted at the request of [Winston Churchill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill "Winston Churchill"), then [Secretary of State for the Colonies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies "Secretary of State for the Colonies"), partly in response to the 1921 [Jaffa Riots](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffa_riots_(May_1921) "Jaffa riots (May 1921)"). The official name of the document was **Palestine: Correspondence with the Palestine Arab Delegation and the Zionist Organisation**. The [white paper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_paper "White paper") was made up of nine documents and "Churchill's memorandum" was an enclosure to document number 5.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchill_White_Paper#cite_note-1) While maintaining Britain's commitment to the [Balfour Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Declaration "Balfour Declaration") and its promise of a [Jewish national home](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeland_for_the_Jewish_people "Homeland for the Jewish people") in [Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine"), the paper emphasized that the establishment of a national home would not impose a Jewish nationality on the [Arab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabs "Arabs") inhabitants of Palestine. To reduce tensions between the Arabs and Jews in Palestine the paper called for a limitation of [Jewish immigration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Aliyah "Third Aliyah") to the economic capacity of the country to absorb new arrivals. This limitation was considered a great setback to many in the [Zionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionist "Zionist") movement, though it acknowledged that the Jews should be able to increase their numbers through immigration rather than sufferance. #### British White Paper of June 1922 \[2\] The Secretary of State for the Colonies has given renewed consideration to the existing political situation in Palestine, with a very earnest desire to arrive at a settlement of the outstanding questions which have given rise to uncertainty and unrest among certain sections of the population. After consultation with the High Commissioner for Palestine \[Sir Herbert Samuel\] the following statement has been drawn up. It summarizes the essential parts of the correspondence that has already taken place between the Secretary of State and a delegation from the Moslem Christian Society of Palestine, which has been for some time in England, and it states the further conclusions which have since been reached. The tension which has prevailed from time to time in Palestine is mainly due to apprehensions, which are entertained both by sections of the Arab and by sections of the Jewish population. These apprehensions, so far as the Arabs are concerned are partly based upon exaggerated interpretations of the meaning of the [\[Balfour\] Declaration](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/balfour.asp) favouring the establishment of a Jewish National Home in Palestine, made on behalf of His Majesty's Government on 2nd November, 1917. Unauthorized statements have been made to the effect that the purpose in view is to create a wholly Jewish Palestine. Phrases have been used such as that Palestine is to become "as Jewish as England is English." His Majesty's Government regard any such expectation as impracticable and have no such aim in view. Nor have they at any time contemplated, as appears to be feared by the Arab deegation, the disappearance or the subordination of the Arabic population, language, or culture in Palestine. They would draw attention to the fact that the terms of the Declaration referred to do not contemplate that Palestine as a whole should be converted into a Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded `in Palestine.' In this connection it has been observed with satisfaction that at a meeting of the Zionist Congress, the supreme governing body of the Zionist Organization, held at Carlsbad in September, 1921, a resolution was passed expressing as the official statement of Zionist aims "the determination of the Jewish people to live with the Arab people on terms of unity and mutual respect, and together with them to make the common home into a flourishing community, the upbuilding of which may assure to each of its peoples an undisturbed national development." It is also necessary to point out that the Zionist Commission in Palestine, now termed the Palestine Zionist Executive, has not desired to possess, and does not possess, any share in the general administration of the country. Nor does the special position assigned to the Zionist Organization in Article IV of the Draft Mandate for Palestine imply any such functions. That special position relates to the measures to be taken in Palestine affecting the Jewish population, and contemplates that the organization may assist in the general development of the country, but does not entitle it to share in any degree in its government. Further, it is contemplated that the status of all citizens of Palestine in the eyes of the law shall be Palestinian, and it has never been intended that they, or any section of them, should possess any other juridical status. So far as the Jewish population of Palestine are concerned it appears that some among them are apprehensive that His Majesty's Government may depart from the policy embodied in the [Declaration of 1917](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/balfour.asp). It is necessary, therefore, once more to affirm that these fears are unfounded, and that that Declaration, re affirmed by the Conference of the Principle Allied Powers at San Remo and again in the Treaty of Sevres, is not susceptible of change. During the last two or three generations the Jews have recreated in Palestine a community, now numbering 80,000, of whom about one fourth are farmers or workers upon the land. This community has its own political organs; an elected assembly for the direction of its domestic concerns; elected councils in the towns; and an organization for the control of its schools. It has its elected Chief Rabbinate and Rabbinical Council for the direction of its religious affairs. Its business is conducted in Hebrew as a vernacular language, and a Hebrew Press serves its needs. It has its distinctive intellectual life and displays considerable economic activity. This community, then, with its town and country population, its political, religious, and social organizations, its own language, its own customs, its own life, has in fact "national" characteristics. When it is asked what is meant by the development of the Jewish National Home in Palestine, it may be answered that it is not the imposition of a Jewish nationality upon the inhabitants of Palestine as a whole, but the further development of the existing Jewish community, with the assistance of Jews in other parts of the world, in order that it may become a centre in which the Jewish people as a whole may take, on grounds of religion and race, an interest and a pride. But in order that this community should have the best prospect of free development and provide a full opportunity for the Jewish people to display its capacities, it is essential that it should know that it is in Palestine as of right and not on the sufferance. That is the reason why it is necessary that the existence of a Jewish National Home in Palestine should be internationally guaranteed, and that it should be formally recognized to rest upon ancient historic connection. This, then, is the interpretation which His Majesty's Government place upon the [Declaration of 1917](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/balfour.asp), and, so understood, the Secretary of State is of opinion that it does not contain or imply anything which need cause either alarm to the Arab population of Palestine or disappointment to the Jews. For the fulfilment of this policy it is necessary that the Jewish community in Palestine should be able to increase its numbers by immigration. This immigration cannot be so great in volume as to exceed whatever may be the economic capacity of the country at the time to absorb new arrivals. It is essential to ensure that the immigrants should not be a burden upon the people of Palestine as a whole, and that they should not deprive any section of the present population of their employment. Hitherto the immigration has fulfilled these conditions. The number of immigrants since the British occupation has been about 25,000. It is necessary also to ensure that persons who are politically undesirable be excluded from Palestine, and every precaution has been and will be taken by the Administration to that end. It is intended that a special committee should be established in Palestine, consisting entirely of members of the new Legislative Council elected by the people, to confer with the administration upon matters relating to the regulation of immigration. Should any difference of opinion arise between this committee and the Administration, the matter will be referred to His Majesty's Government, who will give it special consideration. In addition, under Article 81 of the draft Palestine Order in Council, any religious community or considerable section of the population of Palestine will have a general right to appeal, through the High Commissioner and the Secretary of State, to the League of Nations on any matter on which they may consider that the terms of the Mandate are not being fulfilled by the Government of Palestine. With reference to the Constitution which it is now intended to establish in Palestine, the draft of which has already been published, it is desirable to make certain points clear. In the first place, it is not the case, as has been represented by the Arab Delegation, that during the war His Majesty's Government gave an undertaking that an independent national government should be at once established in Palestine. This representation mainly rests upon a letter dated the 24th October, 1915, from Sir Henry McMahon, then His Majesty's High Commissioner in Egypt, to the Sharif of Mecca, now King Hussein of the Kingdom of the Hejaz. That letter is quoted as conveying the promise to the Sherif of Mecca to recognise and support the independence of the Arabs within the territories proposed by him. But this promise was given subject to a reservation made in the same letter, which excluded from its scope, among other territories, the portions of Syria lying to the west of the District of Damascus. This reservation has always been regarded by His Majesty's Government as covering the vilayet of Beirut and the independent Sanjak of Jerusalem. The whole of Palestine west of the Jordan was thus excluded from Sir. Henry McMahon's pledge. Nevertheless, it is the intention of His Majesty's overnment to foster the establishment of a full measure of self government in Palestine. But they are of the opinion that, in the special circumstances of that country, this should be accomplished by gradual stages and not suddenly. The first step was taken when, on the institution of a Civil Administration, the nominated Advisory Council, which now exists, was established. It was stated at the time by the High Commissioner that this was the first step in the development of self governing institutions, and it is now proposed to take a second step by the establishment of a Legislative Council containing a large proportion of members elected on a wide franchise. It was proposed in the published draft that three of the members of this Council should be non official persons nominated by the High Commissioner, but representations having been made in opposition to this provision, based on cogent considerations, the Secretary of State is prepared to omit it. The legislative Council would then consist of the High Commissioner as President and twelve elected and ten official members. The Secretary of State is of the opinion that before a further measure of self government is extended to Palestine and the Assembly placed in control over the Executive, it would be wise to allow some time to elapse. During this period the institutions of the country will have become well established; its financial credit will be based on firm foundations, and the Palestinian officials will have been enabled to gain experience of sound methods of government. After a few years the situation will be again reviewed, and if the experience of the working of the constitution now to be established so warranted, a larger share of authority would then be extended to the elected representatives of the people. The Secretary of State would point out that already the present administration has transferred to a Supreme Council elected by the Moslem community of Palestine the entire control of Moslem Religious endowments (Waqfs), and of the Moslem religious Courts. To this Council the Administration has also voluntarily restored considerable revenues derived from ancient endowments which have been sequestrated by the Turkish Government. The Education Department is also advised by a committee representative of all sections of the population, and the Department of Commerce and Industry has the benefit of the co operation of the Chambers of Commerce which have been established in the principal centres. It is the intention of the Administration to associate in an increased degree similar representative committees with the various Deparments of the Government. The Secretary of State believes that a policy upon these lines, coupled with the maintenance of the fullest religious liberty in Palestine and with scrupulous regard for the rights of each community with reference to its Holy Places, cannot but commend itself to the various sections of the population, and that upon this basis may be built up that a spirit of cooperation upon which the future progress and prosperity of the Holy Land must largely depend. \[1\] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchill\_White\_Paper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchill_White_Paper) \[2\] [https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th\_century/brwh1922.asp](https://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/brwh1922.asp) # Altalena affair The ***Altalena*** **Affair** was a violent confrontation that took place in June 1948 between the newly created [Israel Defense Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") and the [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun") (also known as Etzel), one of the Jewish paramilitary groups that were in the process of merging to form the IDF. The confrontation involved a cargo ship, the *Altalena*, captained by ex-US Navy lieutenant Monroe Fein and led by senior Etzel commander [Eliyahu Lankin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliyahu_Lankin "Eliyahu Lankin"), which had been loaded with weapons and fighters by the independent Irgun, but arrived during the murky period of the Irgun's absorption into the IDF. Nineteen Israelis (three IDF soldiers and sixteen Irgun members) were killed in the confrontation. The incident brought the newfound Israel to the brink of civil war.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-murdered-1)[\[2\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-underwater-2) [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/mMrimage.png) June 1948. The ship [Altalena](https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Altalena&action=edit&redlink=1 "Altalena (page does not exist)") on fire after being shelled near Tel-Aviv. Altalena was a ship of the right wing zionist organisation “Irgun”, which tried to give weapons to the fighters of Irgun in Israel. The Israeli government refused the existence of weapons furnitures without the control of IDF, and fought against the boat. #### History As the [British Mandate for Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine "Mandate for Palestine") was coming to an end, and following the United Nations General Assembly vote recommending the [Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine "United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine"), which took place on 29 November 1947, Jewish leaders [proclaimed the establishment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Israel) "Declaration of Independence (Israel)") of the [State of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel "Israel") on May 14, 1948. The declaration of independence was followed by the establishment of a [provisional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_government_of_Israel "Provisional government of Israel") and the [Israel Defense Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") (IDF). The process of absorbing all military organizations into the IDF proved complicated, and several paramilitary groups continued to be active outside the IDF. One of the largest groups, the [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun"), planned to ship weapons and fighters to the newly formed state. The plans included a ship renamed *Altalena* (a *nom de plume* of Zionist leader [Ze'ev Jabotinsky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ze'ev_Jabotinsky "Ze'ev Jabotinsky")) and a target date for the ship's arrival from Europe was set to mid-May 1948. The *Altalena*, former [landing ship tank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_ship_tank "Landing ship tank") USS *LST-138*,[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-LST138-3) organized by [Hillel Kook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_Kook "Hillel Kook") (a.k.a., Peter Bergson) purchased by Irgun members Gershon Hakim, [Abraham Stavsky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Stavsky "Abraham Stavsky"), and Victor Ben-Nachum, was originally intended to reach Israel on 15 May 1948, loaded with fighters and military equipment. Weapons valued at 153 million francs were donated by the [French](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France") government, in accordance with a secret agreement approved by French Foreign Minister [Georges Bidault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Bidault "Georges Bidault").[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-:0-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-Zamir-5) The exact text of the agreement has not been found, and the French motivation is unclear.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-:0-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-Zamir-5) However, it is known that Bidault was very concerned about the possibility of a Jordanian takeover of Jerusalem.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-:0-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-Zamir-5) Deputy Chief of Staff General Henri Coudraux, who was involved in the operation, told a 1949 inquiry that France had "reached a secret agreement with the Irgun, which promised it advantages if it were to come into power \[in Israel\]." He described the Irgun's representative in the negotiations, Shmuel Ariel, as "a terrorist who did not represent a legitimate organization and acted to take power by force."[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-:0-4)[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-Zamir-5) According to [Begin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin "Menachem Begin") biographer [Daniel Gordis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Gordis "Daniel Gordis"), organizational matters took longer than expected, and the sailing was postponed for several weeks. Meanwhile, on 1 June, an agreement had been signed for the absorption of the Irgun into the IDF and one of the clauses stated that the Irgun had to cease all independent arms acquisition activities. Consequently, the Irgun informed the Israeli government about the *Altalena*.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-gordis-6) The Irgun headquarters in Paris did their best to keep the *Altalena*'s preparations for departure a secret, but it was difficult to conceal the movement of 940 men and the loading of a large quantity of arms and ammunition. It was feared that if the plans were discovered, attempts might be made to sabotage the *Altalena* at sea. For this reason, when it raised anchor on 11 June, no cable was sent to the Irgun command in Israel, for fear that it would fall into the wrong hands. These precautionary measures proved fruitless, however, and the following day [the BBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_World_Service "BBC World Service") reported that the *Altalena* had sailed from [Port-de-Bouc](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port-de-Bouc "Port-de-Bouc"), [France](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France"), in the direction of Israel with 940 Jewish volunteers and a large quantity of weapons on board. The [first truce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War#First_truce:_11_June_%E2%80%93_8_July_1948 "1948 Arab–Israeli War") in the [1948 Arab–Israeli War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War "1948 Arab–Israeli War") had also begun on 11 June and when the Irgun leaders in Israel learned through the BBC broadcast of the embarkation of the vessel, they feared that this breach of the truce conditions (i.e., the ban on bringing military equipment and fighters into the country[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-UN_S1025-7)) would be discovered (though ultimately, these aspects of the truce were ignored by both sides). [Menachem Begin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin "Menachem Begin") decided therefore to postpone the arrival of the ship, and Irgun staff secretary Zippora Levi-Kessel sent a wireless message to the *Altalena* to stay put and await orders. A similar cable was sent to [Shmuel Katz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shmuel_Katz_(politician) "Shmuel Katz (politician)") (member of the General Headquarters), who was then in Paris, but the ship had already departed the day before the message arrived. On 15 June, Begin and his comrades held a meeting with government representatives, at which Begin announced that the ship had sailed without his knowledge and that he wanted to hold consultations on how to proceed. In his diary for 16 June, [David Ben-Gurion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion"), the head of the provisional government, wrote: > [Yisrael \[Galili\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yisrael_Galili "Yisrael Galili") and [Skolnik \[Levi Eshkol\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Eshkol "Levi Eshkol") met yesterday with Begin. Tomorrow or the next day their ship is due to arrive: 4,500 tons, bringing 800–900 men, 5,000 [rifles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifle "Rifle"), 250 [Bren guns](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bren_light_machine_gun "Bren light machine gun"), 5 million bullets, 50 [bazookas](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazooka "Bazooka"), 10 [Bren carriers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Carrier "Universal Carrier"). Zipstein (director of [Tel Aviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") port) assumes that at night it will be possible to unload it all. I believe we should not endanger Tel Aviv port. They should not be sent back. They should be disembarked at an unknown shore. Galili informed Begin of Ben-Gurion's consent to the landing of the ship, adding a request that it be done as quickly as possible. Zippora Levi-Kessel then radioed the vessel to come in at full speed. The following day, a working meeting was held between Irgun representatives and Defense Ministry personnel. While the Irgun proposed directing the *Altalena* to [Tel Aviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") beach, [Defense Ministry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_(Israel) "Ministry of Defense (Israel)") representatives claimed that [Kfar Vitkin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kfar_Vitkin "Kfar Vitkin") beach was preferable, as it would be easier to evade UN observers there. The ship was therefore instructed to make for Kfar Vitkin. ## Confrontation with the IDF Intense negotiations between representatives of the [provisional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_government_of_Israel "Provisional government of Israel") (headed by Ben-Gurion) and the Irgun (headed by Begin) followed the departure of the *Altalena* from France. Among the issues discussed were logistics of its landing and distribution of the cargo. Whilst there was agreement on the anchoring place of the *Altalena*, there were differences of opinion about the cargo.[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-8) Ben-Gurion agreed to Begin's initial request that 20 percent of the weapons be dispatched to the Irgun's [Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") Battalion, which was still fighting independently. His second request that the remainder be transferred to the IDF to equip the newly incorporated Irgun battalions was rejected by the government representatives,[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-9) who interpreted the request as a demand to reinforce an "army within an army". The *Altalena* reached Kfar Vitkin in the late afternoon of Sunday, 20 June, greeted by Menachem Begin and a group of Irgun members on shore. Irgun sympathizers from the nearby town of [Netanya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netanya "Netanya") and residents of the fishing village of [Mikhmoret](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhmoret "Mikhmoret") gathered on the beach to help unload the cargo. After the ship dropped anchor, 940 passengers disembarked and were taken to an army camp for induction into the IDF.[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-10) Arms were unloaded throughout the night. In all, 2,000 rifles, two million rounds of ammunition, 3,000 shells, and 200 Bren guns were unloaded at Kfar Vitkin. Concomitantly with the events at Kfar Vitkin, the government had convened in Tel Aviv for its weekly meeting. Ben-Gurion reported on the meetings which had preceded the arrival of the *Altalena* and was adamant that Begin hand over the weapons: > We must decide whether to hand over power to Begin or to order him to cease his separate activities. If he does not do so, we will open fire! Otherwise, we must decide to disperse our own army. [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kfar_Vitkin_1949.jpg) Kfar Vitkin 1949 1:20,000, jetty where *Altalena* unloaded marked The debate ended in a resolution to empower the army to use force if necessary. Implementation was assigned to the Alexandroni Brigade commanded by [Dan Even](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Even?action=edit&redlink=1 "Dan Even (page does not exist)") \[[he](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%9F%20%D7%90%D7%91%D7%9F "he:דן אבן")\] (Epstein), which the following day surrounded the Kfar Vitkin area in two regiments equipped with armor and artillery. In addition, the [Israeli Navy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_Navy "Israeli Navy") deployed three [corvettes](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corvette "Corvette") off Kfar Vitkin. Even issued the following ultimatum: > To: M. Begin > By special order from the Chief of the General Staff of the Israel Defense Forces, I am empowered to confiscate the weapons and military materials which have arrived on the Israeli coast in the area of my jurisdiction in the name of the Israel Government. I have been authorized to demand that you hand over the weapons to me for safekeeping and to inform you that you should establish contact with the supreme command. You are required to carry out this order immediately. If you do not agree to carry out this order, I shall use all the means at my disposal in order to implement the order and to requisition the weapons which have reached shore and transfer them from private possession into the possession of the Israel government. I wish to inform you that the entire area is surrounded by fully armed military units and armored cars, and all roads are blocked. I hold you fully responsible for any consequences in the event of your refusal to carry out this order. The immigrants—unarmed—will be permitted to travel to the camps in accordance with your arrangements. You have ten minutes to give me your answer. > D.E., Brigade Commander The ultimatum was made, according to Even, "in order not to give the Irgun commander time for lengthy considerations and to gain the advantage of surprise." Begin did not respond. Claiming he needed more time, he drove to Netanya to consult directly with government leaders. A standoff between the IDF and Irgun members at the beach ensued as a [UN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") observation plane circled overhead and recorded the incident. Failing to reach an accord, Begin returned to the beach and conferred with his officers. As evening began, rifle fire broke out; which side fired first is a matter of dispute. [Hillel Kook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_Kook "Hillel Kook"), an eyewitness, claimed it was the Irgun, which fired shots toward the sea to demonstrate their will to resist. As the fighting began, Begin fled to the *Altalena* in a rowboat, under fire from the corvettes offshore, and Captain Fein maneuvered the *Altalena* to shield Begin, enabling him to board safely. On shore, the Irgun fighters were compelled to surrender. The IDF suffered two dead and six wounded, while the Irgun suffered six dead and eighteen wounded.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-gordis-6) In order to prevent further bloodshed, the residents of Kfar Vitkin initiated negotiations between [Yaakov Meridor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaakov_Meridor "Yaakov Meridor") (Begin's deputy) and Dan Even which ended in a general ceasefire and the transfer of the weapons on shore to the local IDF commander.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-machal-11)[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-castlewitz-12) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atalena_crew.jpg) Some of the crew of the *Altalena*, including Captain Monroe Fein (bottom row center). [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1948_Arab-Israeli_War_(997008136847205171).jpg) *Altalena* burning near the shore [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_(GPO)_-_Burning_%22Altalena%22.jpg) People looking at burning ship Meanwhile, Begin ordered the *Altalena* to sail to Tel Aviv, where there were more Irgun supporters. At 9:35 p.m., the *Altalena* began cruising toward Tel Aviv. Many Irgun members, who had joined the IDF earlier that month, left their bases and assembled on the beach. Rumors began circulating that the Irgun was planning a military coup. According to the book *Altalena* by journalist and political analyst [Shlomo Nakdimon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shlomo_Nakdimon?action=edit&redlink=1 "Shlomo Nakdimon (page does not exist)") \[[he](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%94%20%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%9F "he:שלמה נקדימון")\], [Ben-Gurion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion") instructed the [Israeli Air Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_Air_Force "Israeli Air Force") to sink the ship on the high seas, long before it approached the shore. This would have resulted in much greater loss of life aboard. [Gordon Levett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Levett "Gordon Levett"), a [Mahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahal_(Israel) "Mahal (Israel)") volunteer pilot, wrote in his book *Flying Under Two Flags* that Heiman Shamir, deputy commander of the Air Force, tried to convince non-Jewish pilot volunteers to attack the ship. However, three pilots refused to participate in the mission, one of them saying, "You can kiss my foot. I did not lose four friends and fly 10,000 miles in order to bomb Jews." The *Altalena* was shadowed by navy corvettes on its way to Tel Aviv. As the ship neared the coastline, the corvettes began firing at it with bursts of machine gun fire, and stopped after fighters on board the *Altalena* returned fire with Bren guns mounted on deck. The *Altalena* arrived at midnight, running aground on the busiest stretch of shore, at the foot of David Frischmann Street, in view of locals, journalists, and UN observers watching from the terrace of the Kaete Dan Hotel (today Dan Tel Aviv). In response, Ben-Gurion ordered [Yigael Yadin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yigael_Yadin "Yigael Yadin") (acting chief of staff) to concentrate large forces on the Tel Aviv beach and to take the ship by force. He also indicated to his interior minister that he would order the Israeli Navy to intercept any attempt by the *Altalena* to retreat into international waters. The IDF transferred heavy guns to the area and at 4 p.m. the next day, Ben-Gurion ordered the shelling of the *Altalena*. The first gunner ordered to shell the ship, a [Red Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") veteran named Yosef Aksen, refused, saying he was willing to be executed for insubordination and this would be "the best thing he did in his life." At this, his superior, Nathan Plotnik, ordered him to be imprisoned to await a court-martial for insubordination.[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-13) Then Hillel Daleski, a recent immigrant from [South Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa "South Africa"), initially protested, telling Shmuel Admon, the commander of the IDF Artillery Corps, that "I didn't come to the Land of Israel to fight against Jews." However, his superior yelled at him that it was his duty to obey orders. Threatened with a court-martial if he did not fire, Daleski reluctantly complied. One of the shells hit the ship, and it began to burn.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-machal-11)[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-14) [Yitzhak Rabin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin "Yitzhak Rabin") commanded the IDF and Palmach forces on the shore. [Yigal Allon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yigal_Allon "Yigal Allon") later claimed that five or six shells were fired as warning shots, and hit the ship by accident.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-gordis-6)[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-15) IDF troops on the shore also directed heavy small-arms fire towards the ship, and employed heavy machine guns with armor-piercing rounds. Some soldiers refused to open fire on the *Altalena*, including a [Palmach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmach "Palmach") soldier whose brother, an Irgun officer, was on board.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-16) Menachem Begin, hoping to avert civil war, ordered his men not to shoot back, and the ship raised the white flag. However, the firing continued, and some Irgun members on board reportedly returned fire. The Israeli corvettes also fired at the *Altalena* during the battle, and one crew member later claimed that IDF troops on the beach were hit by fire from one of the corvettes, which had aimed at the *Altalena* but overshot its target.[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-17) On the beach, a battle between the IDF and Irgun forces along the shore erupted, and clashes between IDF and Irgun units also took place throughout Tel Aviv, mainly in the south and center.[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-18) Fearing the fire would spread to the holds which contained explosives, Captain Fein ordered all aboard to abandon ship. Passengers jumped into the water, whilst their comrades on shore set out to meet them on rafts. Begin biographer [Daniel Gordis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Gordis "Daniel Gordis")[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-Thrope-19) writes that although Captain Fein flew the white flag of surrender, automatic fire continued to be directed at the unarmed survivors swimming in the water.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-gordis-6) Begin, who was on deck, agreed to leave the ship only after the last of the wounded had been evacuated. Although civil war appeared imminent, a cease-fire was arranged by the evening of 22 June. Mass arrests were carried out against Irgun soldiers who had joined their former comrades, and Irgun units in the IDF were disbanded, with their soldiers dispersed among other units. In all, more than 200 Irgun members were arrested. Most were released several weeks later, with the exception of five senior commanders (Moshe Hason, [Eliyahu Lankin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliyahu_Lankin "Eliyahu Lankin"), [Yaakov Meridor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaakov_Meridor "Yaakov Meridor"), [Bezalel Amitzur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezalel_Amitzur?action=edit&redlink=1 "Bezalel Amitzur (page does not exist)"), and [Hillel Kook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_Kook "Hillel Kook")), who were detained for more than two months, until 27 August 1948. Eight IDF soldiers who refused to fire on the *Altalena* were court-martialed for insubordination. Meanwhile, Begin reached his clandestine radio station and ordered his men not to fight back. He called for them to assemble in Jerusalem and continue the battle for the [Old City](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_City_(Jerusalem) "Old City (Jerusalem)").[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-castlewitz-12) Sixteen Irgun fighters were killed in the confrontation with the army (all but three were veteran members and not newcomers from the ship); six were killed in the [Kfar Vitkin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kfar_Vitkin "Kfar Vitkin") area and ten on [Tel Aviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") beach. Three IDF soldiers were killed: two at Kfar Vitkin and one in Tel Aviv.[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-20)[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-21)[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-22) ## Aftermath [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Publiek_op_het_strand_bij_de_strandboulevard_van_Tel_Aviv_met_strandstoelen_en_e,_Bestanddeelnr_255-1366.jpg) Burned *Altalena* near the beach, 1948 [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Strand_bij_de_strandboulevard_van_Tel_Aviv_met_een_dame_in_badkostuum_tijdens_he,_Bestanddeelnr_255-1374.jpg) People on the beach, burned *Altalena* in the background, 1948 About a year after the incident, the *Altalena* was refloated, towed 15 miles out to sea, and sunk.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-Altalena_PalYam-23) The *Altalena* Affair exposed deep rifts between the main political factions in Israel, and is still occasionally referenced in Israeli media to illustrate the current debate as to whether or not the use of force by the Israeli government against fringe Jewish political elements is legitimate. Proponents of Ben-Gurion's actions praised them as essential to establishing the government's authority and discouraging factionalism and formation of rival armies. This was consistent with other actions he took, such as dissolving the [Palmach](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmach "Palmach") later that year. Furthermore, Ben-Gurion's supporters have argued that a state must have a monopoly over the use of force. The Irgun, by attempting to import weapons to use as a private [militia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militia "Militia"), was undermining the legitimacy of the fledgling State of Israel. Opponents condemned what they saw as unnecessary violence. The debate was reignited for a short time when [Likud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likud "Likud") headed by Menachem Begin won the [1977 elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977_Israeli_legislative_election "1977 Israeli legislative election"). Begin later said, "My greatest accomplishment was not retaliating and causing [civil war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_war "Civil war")." Years later, on the eve of the [Six-Day War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War"), in June 1967 (when [Levi Eshkol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Eshkol "Levi Eshkol") was [prime minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Israel "Prime Minister of Israel")), Menachem Begin joined a delegation which visited [Sde Boker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sde_Boker "Sde Boker") to ask David Ben-Gurion to return and accept the premiership again. After that meeting, Ben-Gurion said that if he had then known Begin as he did now, the face of history would have been different. In 2012, the wreckage of the *Altalena* was discovered by marine experts hired by the [Menachem Begin Heritage Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin_Heritage_Center "Menachem Begin Heritage Center") in a search effort that the Israeli government helped to fund. The search was initially based on Israeli Navy's coordinates on the location where it was sunk, but after failing to turn up results, the search area was expanded. The *Altalena* was eventually found sitting on the seabed several kilometers off the coast of [Rishon LeZion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishon_LeZion "Rishon LeZion") at a depth of about 300 metres (1,000 ft). A sonar survey confirmed the ship's identity. The Israeli government subsequently announced plans to raise the wreck and install it on dry land as a monument.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-24)[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-25) ## Legacy [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_32281_Altalena_memorial_at_Tel_Aviv_beach.jpg) *Altalena* memorial on Tel-Aviv Beach The first memorial to the sixteen Irgun fighters and three IDF soldiers killed in the *Altalena* sinking was erected in the [Nahalat Yitzhak Cemetery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahalat_Yitzhak_Cemetery "Nahalat Yitzhak Cemetery") in [Givatayim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giv'atayim "Giv'atayim") in 1998.[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-26) The official government memorial ceremony for the victims is held annually on the cemetery grounds.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-27) The ceremony is primarily attended by relatives of the victims and political personalities identified with Israel's national camp. In 2011, invitations circulated by Israel's Ministry of Defense used the word *murdered* in reference to the fighters who lost their lives in the incident, implying that Ben-Gurion, Rabin, and the IDF had committed murder.[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-murdered-1) Defense Minister [Ehud Barak](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehud_Barak "Ehud Barak") subsequently demanded that the "severe mishap" be investigated and corrected. Speaker of the Knesset at the time and subsequently president of Israel [Reuven Rivlin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuven_Rivlin "Reuven Rivlin") said at the ceremony that the *Altalena* Affair was an unatonable crime.[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-28) Every year, a cruise led by the [Hazon Leumi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazon_Leumi "Hazon Leumi") organization leaves from the port of Jaffa to the place where the ship sank, where a memorial ceremony is held in memory of those who died on the ship.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair#cite_note-29) \[1\] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena\_affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_affair) # Menachem Begin **Menachem Begin**[\[a\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-3) (16 August 1913 – 9 March 1992) was an Israeli politician who founded the political parties [Herut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herut "Herut") and [Likud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likud "Likud") and served as [prime minister of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Israel "Prime Minister of Israel") from 1977 to 1983. Before the creation of the [state of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_Israel "State of Israel"), Begin was the leader of the Zionist militant group [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun"), the [Revisionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism "Revisionist Zionism") breakaway from the larger Jewish paramilitary organization [Haganah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haganah "Haganah"). He proclaimed a [revolt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun#Revolt "Irgun"), on 1 February 1944, against the [British mandatory government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine"), which was opposed by the [Jewish Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Palestine#Jewish_Agency_for_Palestine "Jewish Agency for Palestine"). As head of the Irgun, he [targeted the British in Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_insurgency_in_Mandatory_Palestine "Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine"),[\[3\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-4) with a notable attack being the [King David Hotel bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_David_Hotel_bombing "King David Hotel bombing"). Later, the Irgun fought the Arabs during the [1947–48 civil war in Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1947%E2%80%9348_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine "1947–48 civil war in Mandatory Palestine") and, as its chief, Begin was described by the British government as the "leader of the notorious [terrorist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorist "Terrorist") organisation". It declined him an entry visa to the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") between 1953 and 1955. However, Begin's overtures of friendship eventually paid off and he was granted a visa in 1972, five years prior to becoming prime minister.[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-haaretz7jul11-5) Begin was elected to the first [Knesset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knesset "Knesset"), as head of [Herut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herut "Herut"), the party he founded, and was at first on the political fringe, embodying the opposition to the [Mapai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapai "Mapai")-led government and Israeli establishment. He remained in opposition in the eight consecutive elections (except for a national unity government around the [Six-Day War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War")), but became more acceptable to the political center. His 1977 [electoral victory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977_Israeli_legislative_election "1977 Israeli legislative election") and premiership ended three decades of [Labor Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_Labor_Party "Israeli Labor Party") political dominance. Begin's most significant achievement as prime minister was the signing of a [peace treaty with Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_peace_treaty "Egypt–Israel peace treaty") in 1979, for which he and [Anwar Sadat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anwar_Sadat "Anwar Sadat") shared the [Nobel Peace Prize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize "Nobel Peace Prize"). In the wake of the [Camp David Accords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_David_Accords "Camp David Accords"), the [Israel Defense Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") (IDF) withdrew from the [Sinai Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula "Sinai Peninsula"), which had been captured from Egypt in the Six-Day War. Later, Begin's government promoted the construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Begin authorized the [bombing of the Osirak nuclear plant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Opera "Operation Opera") in Iraq and the invasion of Lebanon in 1982 to fight [Palestine Liberation Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization "Palestine Liberation Organization") strongholds there, igniting the [1982 Lebanon War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War "1982 Lebanon War"). As Israeli military involvement in Lebanon deepened, and the [Sabra and Shatila massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre "Sabra and Shatila massacre"), carried out by Christian [Phalangist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalangist "Phalangist") militia allies of the Israelis, shocked world public opinion,[\[5\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-6) Begin grew increasingly isolated.[\[6\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-7) As IDF forces remained mired in Lebanon and the economy suffered from [hyperinflation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperinflation "Hyperinflation"), the public pressure on Begin mounted. [Depressed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood) "Depression (mood)") by the death of his wife [Aliza](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliza_Begin "Aliza Begin") in November 1982, he gradually withdrew from public life, until his resignation in October 1983. Menachem Begin was born to Zeev Dov and Hassia Begun in Brest-Litovsk, [Russian Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire") (now [Brest, Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brest,_Belarus "Brest, Belarus")). He was the youngest of three children.[\[7\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-8) On his mother's side he was descended from distinguished rabbis. His father, a timber merchant, was a community leader, a passionate [Zionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionism "Zionism"), and an admirer of [Theodor Herzl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Herzl "Theodor Herzl"). The midwife who attended his birth was the grandmother of [Ariel Sharon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Sharon "Ariel Sharon").[\[8\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-autogenerated1-9) After a year of a traditional [cheder](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheder "Cheder") education Begin started studying at a "Tachkemoni" school, associated with the religious Zionist movement. In his childhood, Begin, like most Jewish children in his town, was a member of the Zionist scouts movement [Hashomer Hatzair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashomer_Hatzair "Hashomer Hatzair"). He was a member of Hashomer Hatzair until the age of 13, and at 16, he joined [Betar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betar_(youth_movement) "Betar (youth movement)").[\[9\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-10) At 14, he was sent to a Polish government school,[\[10\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-11) where he received a solid grounding in [classical literature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_literature "Classical literature"). Begin studied law at the [University of Warsaw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Warsaw "University of Warsaw"), where he learned the [oratory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eloquence "Eloquence") and [rhetoric](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric "Rhetoric") skills that became his trademark as a politician, and viewed as [demagogy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demagogy "Demagogy") by his critics.[\[11\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-12) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BeginBeitar1935.jpg) Begin reviews a [Betar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betar "Betar") lineup in 1939. During his studies, he organized a self-defense group of Jewish students to counter harassment by anti-Semites on campus.[\[12\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-13) He graduated in 1935, but never practiced law. At this time he became a disciple of [Vladimir "Ze'ev" Jabotinsky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ze'ev_Jabotinsky "Ze'ev Jabotinsky"), the founder of the nationalist [Revisionist Zionism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism "Revisionist Zionism") movement and its youth wing, [Betar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betar "Betar").[\[13\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-14) His rise within Betar was rapid: at 22, he shared the dais with his mentor at the Betar World Congress in [Kraków](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w "Kraków").[\[14\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-15) The pre-war Polish government actively supported Zionist youth and paramilitary movements. In 1937[\[15\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-16) he was the active head of Betar in [Czechoslovakia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia "Czechoslovakia") and became head of the largest branch, that of Poland. As head of Betar's Polish branch, Begin traveled among regional branches to encourage supporters and recruit new members. To save money, he stayed at the homes of Betar members. During one such visit, he met his future wife [Aliza Arnold](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliza_Begin "Aliza Begin"), who was the daughter of his host. The couple married on 29 May 1939. They had three children: [Binyamin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Begin "Benny Begin"), Leah and Hassia.[\[16\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-17) Living in Warsaw in Poland, Begin encouraged Betar to set up an organization to bring Polish Jews to Palestine. He unsuccessfully attempted to smuggle 1,500 Jews into [Romania](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania "Romania") at the end of August 1939. Returning to Warsaw afterward, he left three days after the German [1939 invasion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland") began, first to the southwest and then to [Wilno](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilno "Wilno"), Lithuania.[\[17\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-18) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menachem_Begin_in_September_1940.jpg) [NKVD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NKVD "NKVD") mugshots of Menachem Begin, 1940 In September 1939, after Germany invaded Poland, Begin, in common with a large part of Warsaw's Jewish leadership, escaped to Wilno (today [Vilnius](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilnius "Vilnius")), then eastern Poland, to avoid inevitable arrest. The town was soon occupied by the [Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), but from 28 October 1939, it was the capital of the Republic of Lithuania. Wilno was a predominately Polish and [Jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Jews "Polish Jews") town; an estimated 40 percent of the population was Jewish, with the [YIVO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YIVO "YIVO") institute located there. As a prominent pre-war Zionist and reserve status officer-cadet, on 20 September 1940, Begin was arrested by the [NKVD](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NKVD "NKVD") and detained in the [Lukiškės Prison](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luki%C5%A1k%C4%97s_Prison "Lukiškės Prison"). In later years he wrote about his experience of being tortured. He was accused of being an "agent of British [imperialism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism "Imperialism")" and sentenced to eight years in the Soviet [gulag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag "Gulag") camps. On 1 June 1941 he was sent to the [Pechora](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pechora "Pechora") [labor camps](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_camp "Labor camp") in Komi Republic, the northern part of European Russia. Much later in life, Begin recorded and reflected upon his experiences in the interrogations and life in the camp in his memoir [*White Nights*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Nights_(Begin_book) "White Nights (Begin book)").[\[18\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-19) In July 1941, just after [Germany attacked the Soviet Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa "Operation Barbarossa"), and following his release under the [Sikorski–Mayski agreement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikorski%E2%80%93Mayski_agreement "Sikorski–Mayski agreement") because he was a Polish national, Begin joined the Free Polish [Anders' Army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anders'_Army "Anders' Army") as a [corporal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal "Corporal") [officer cadet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Officer_cadet "Officer cadet"). He was later [sent with the army](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evacuation_of_Polish_civilians_from_the_USSR_in_World_War_II "Evacuation of Polish civilians from the USSR in World War II") to [Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") via the [Persian Corridor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Corridor "Persian Corridor"), where he arrived in May 1942.[\[19\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-haber1978-20) Upon arriving in Palestine, Begin, like many other Polish Jewish soldiers of the Anders' Army, faced a choice between remaining with the Anders' Army to fight Nazi Germany in Europe, or staying in Palestine to fight for establishment of a Jewish state. While he initially wished to remain with the Polish army, he was eventually persuaded to change his mind by his contacts in the [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun"), as well as Polish officers sympathetic to the Zionist cause. Consequently, General [Michał Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski "Michał Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski"), the second-in-command of the Army, issued Begin with a "leave of absence without an expiration" which gave Begin official permission to stay in Palestine. In December 1942 he left Anders's Army and joined the [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun").[\[20\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-LeavingAndersArmy-21) During [the Holocaust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust "The Holocaust"), Begin's father was among the 5,000 Brest Jews rounded up by the Nazis at the end of June 1941. Instead of being sent to a forced labor camp, they were shot or drowned in the river. His mother and his elder brother Herzl also were murdered in the Holocaust.[\[21\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-22) ### Jewish underground [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MENAHEM_BEGIN_IN_POLISH_ARMY_UNIFORM_WITH_WIFE_ALIZA_IN_TEL-AVIV._COURTESY_JABOTINSKY_INSTITUTE._%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%97%D7%9D_%D7%91%D7%92%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%90_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%99_%D7%A2%D7%9D_%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95_%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%94_,_%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%91%D7%99%D7%91D705-085.jpg) Begin in his Polish Army uniform with his wife Aliza in Tel Aviv, December 1942. Begin quickly made a name for himself as a fierce critic of the dominant [Zionist leadership](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapai "Mapai") for being too cooperative with the British, and argued that the only way to save the Jews of Europe, who were facing extermination, was to compel the British to leave so that a Jewish state could be established. In 1942 he joined the [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun") (*Etzel*), an underground Zionist paramilitary organization which had split from the main Jewish military organization, the [Haganah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haganah "Haganah"), in 1931. Begin assumed the Irgun's leadership in 1944, determined to force the British government to remove its troops entirely from Palestine. The official Jewish leadership institutions in Palestine, the [Jewish Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel "Jewish Agency for Israel") and [Jewish National Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_National_Council "Jewish National Council") ("Vaad Leumi"), backed up by their military arm, the [Haganah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haganah "Haganah"), had refrained from directly challenging British authority. They were convinced that the British would establish a Jewish state after the war due to support for the Zionist cause among both the Conservative and Labour parties. Giving as reasons that the British had reneged on the promises given in the [Balfour Declaration](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Declaration "Balfour Declaration") and that the [White Paper of 1939](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Paper_of_1939 "White Paper of 1939") restricting Jewish immigration was an escalation of their pro-Arab policy, he decided to break with the official institutions and launch an armed rebellion against British rule, in cooperation with [Lehi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(group) "Lehi (group)"), another breakaway Zionist group. Begin had also carefully studied the tactics of the [Indian independence movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_movement "Indian independence movement"). Even more importantly, during multiple meetings with [Jewish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Jew "Irish Jew") [Lord Mayor of Dublin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_Dublin "Lord Mayor of Dublin") and senior IRA veteran [Robert Briscoe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Briscoe_(politician) "Robert Briscoe (politician)"), who jokingly described himself as the "Chair of Subversive Activity against England",[\[22\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-23) Begin had also carefully studied the highly successful use of [guerrilla warfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare "Guerrilla warfare") tactics by [Michael Collins](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Collins_(Irish_leader) "Michael Collins (Irish leader)") during the [Irish War of Independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_War_of_Independence "Irish War of Independence"). While planning the rebellion with Irgun commanders, Begin accordingly devised a highly similar strategy that he believed would force the [British Empire](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire "British Empire") out. He proposed a series of [guerrilla warfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare "Guerrilla warfare") attacks that would humiliate the British Empire and damage their prestige; this would cause the British, as they had with the [Black and Tans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_and_Tans "Black and Tans") and the [Auxiliary Division](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_Division "Auxiliary Division") in Ireland, to engage in repression against the whole Jewish civilian population, which would completely alienate the [Yishuv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yishuv "Yishuv"). Similarly to Michael Collins, Begin banked on the international media being attracted to the action, which he referred to as turning Palestine into a "glass house", as the whole world looked inside. He knew that British repression would create both global sympathy for the Irgun's cause and international diplomatic pressure on Britain. Ultimately, the British would be forced to choose between further escalating the repression or complete withdrawal, and Begin was certain that in the end, the British would leave. Further, so as not to disturb the Allied war effort against [Nazi Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany"), only British civilian administration and [Palestine Police Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Police_Force "Palestine Police Force") targets would be attacked at first, while [British Armed Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Armed_Forces "British Armed Forces") personnel would only be attacked after Germany had been defeated.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-Bell-24) On 1 February 1944, the Irgun proclaimed a revolt. Twelve days later, it put its plan into action when Irgun teams bombed the empty offices of the British Mandate's Immigration Department in [Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem"), [Tel Aviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv"), and [Haifa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa "Haifa"). The Irgun next bombed the Income Tax Offices in those three cities, followed by a series of attacks on police stations in which two Irgun fighters and six policemen were killed. Meanwhile, Lehi joined the revolt with a series of shooting attacks on policemen.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-Bell-24) [](https://wiki.compclassnotes.com/uploads/images/gallery/2026-09/iZMimage.png) [Palestine Police Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Police_Force "Palestine Police Force") wanted poster of Irgun and Lehi members. Begin appears at the top left. The Irgun and Lehi attacks intensified throughout 1944. These operations were financed by demanding money from Jewish merchants and engaging in insurance scams in the local diamond industry.[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-25) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menahem_Begin_during_his_%22Rabbi_Sassover%22_period_with_wife_Aliza_and_son_Benyamin-Zeev_in_Tel_Aviv.jpg) Begin in the guise of "Rabbi Sassover" with wife Aliza and son Benyamin-Zeev, Tel Aviv, December 1946 [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_-_Menahem_Begin_visit_the_%22Etzel%22_camp.jpg) Begin with Irgun members, 1948 In 1944, after Lehi gunmen assassinated [Lord Moyne](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Guinness,_1st_Baron_Moyne "Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne"), the British Resident Minister in the Middle East, the official Jewish authorities, fearing British retaliation, ordered the Haganah to undertake a campaign of collaboration with the British. Known as [The Hunting Season](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunting_Season "The Hunting Season"), the campaign seriously crippled the Irgun for several months, while Lehi, having agreed to suspend their anti-British attacks, was spared. Begin, anxious to prevent a civil war, ordered his men not to retaliate or resist being taken captive, convinced that the Irgun could ride out the Season, and that the Jewish Agency would eventually side with the Irgun when it became apparent the British government had no intention of making concessions. Gradually, shamed at participating in what was viewed as a collaborationist campaign, the enthusiasm of the Haganah began to wane, and Begin's assumptions were proven correct. The Irgun's restraint also earned it much sympathy from the Yishuv, whereas previously it had been assumed by many that it had placed its own political interests before those of the Yishuv.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-Bell-24) In the summer of 1945, as it became clear that the British were not planning on establishing a Jewish state and would not allow significant Jewish immigration to Palestine, Jewish public opinion shifted decisively against the British, and the Jewish authorities sent feelers to the Irgun and Lehi to discuss an alliance. The result was the [Jewish Resistance Movement](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Resistance_Movement "Jewish Resistance Movement"), a framework under which the Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi launched coordinated series of anti-British operations. For several months in 1945–46, the Irgun fought as part of the Jewish Resistance Movement. Following [Operation Agatha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Agatha "Operation Agatha"), during which the British arrested many Jews, seized arms caches, and occupied the Jewish Agency building, from which many documents were removed, Begin ordered an attack on the British military and administrative headquarters at the [King David Hotel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_David_Hotel "King David Hotel") following a request from the Haganah, although the Haganah's permission was later rescinded. The [King David Hotel bombing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_David_Hotel_bombing "King David Hotel bombing") resulted in the destruction of the building's southern wing, and 91 people, mostly British, Arabs, and Jews, were killed. The fragile partnership collapsed following the bombing, partly because contrary to instructions, it was carried out during the busiest part of the day at the hotel. The Haganah, from then on, would rarely mount attacks against British forces and would focus mainly on the [Aliyah Bet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliyah_Bet "Aliyah Bet") illegal immigration campaign, and while it occasionally took half-hearted measures against the Irgun, it never returned to full-scale collaboration with the British. The Irgun and Lehi continued waging a full-scale insurgency against the British, and together with the Haganah's illegal immigration campaign, this forced a large commitment of British forces to Palestine that was gradually sapping British financial resources. Three particular Irgun operations directly ordered by Begin—the [Night of the Beatings](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_of_the_Beatings "Night of the Beatings"), the [Acre Prison break](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre_Prison_break "Acre Prison break"), and the [Sergeants affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sergeants_affair "The Sergeants affair")—were cited as particularly influencing the British to leave due to Britain's decreasing international prestige and the growing public opposition they generated at home to Britain's remaining. In September 1947, the British cabinet voted to leave Palestine, and in November of that year, the United Nations approved a resolution to partition the country between Arabs and Jews. The financial burden imposed on Britain by the Jewish insurgency, together with the tremendous public opposition to keeping troops in Palestine it generated among the British public was later cited by British officials as a major factor in Britain's decision to evacuate Palestine.[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-Hoffman-26)[\[26\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-27) ### 1948 Palestine war Further information: [1948 Palestine war](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Palestine_war "1948 Palestine war") [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menachem_Begin_inspecting_Irgun_members_1948.jpg) Menachem Begin (left) inspecting members of the Irgun in Jerusalem, August 1948. In December 1947, immediately following the UN partition vote, the [1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1947%E2%80%931948_Civil_War_in_Mandatory_Palestine "1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine") broke out between the Yishuv and Palestinian Arabs. The Irgun fought together with the Haganah and Lehi during that period. Notable operations in which they took part were the [battle of Jaffa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Hametz "Operation Hametz") and the [Jordanian siege](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_for_Jerusalem "Battle for Jerusalem") on the [Jewish Quarter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Quarter_(Jerusalem) "Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem)") in the Old City of [Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem"). The Irgun's most controversial operation during this period, carried out alongside Lehi, was an assault on the Arab village of [Deir Yassin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_Yassin "Deir Yassin") in which more than a hundred villagers and four of the attackers were killed. The event later became known as the [Deir Yassin massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deir_Yassin_massacre "Deir Yassin massacre"), though Irgun and Lehi sources would deny a massacre took place there. Begin also repeatedly threatened to declare independence if the Jewish Agency did not do so.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-Bell-24) Throughout the period of the rebellion against the British and the civil war against the Arabs, Begin lived openly under a series of assumed names, often while sporting a beard. Begin would not come out of hiding until April 1948, when the British, who still maintained nominal authority over Palestine, were almost totally gone. During the period of revolt, Begin was the most wanted man in Palestine, and [MI5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MI5 "MI5") placed a 'dead-or-alive' bounty of [£](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_sterling "Pound sterling")10,000 on his head. Begin had been forced into hiding immediately prior to the declaration of revolt, when Aliza noticed that their house was being watched. He initially lived in a room in the Savoy Hotel, a small hotel in [Tel Aviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") whose owner was sympathetic to the Irgun's cause, and his wife and son were smuggled in to join him after two months. He decided to grow a beard and live openly under an assumed name rather than go completely into hiding. He was aided by the fact that the British authorities possessed only two photographs of his likeness, of which one, which they believed to be his military identity card, bore only a slight resemblance to him, according to Begin, and were fed misinformation by [Yaakov Meridor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaakov_Meridor "Yaakov Meridor") that he had had plastic surgery, and were thus confused over his appearance. Due to the British police conducting searches in the hotel's vicinity, he relocated to a Yemenite neighborhood in [Petah Tikva](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petah_Tikva "Petah Tikva"), and after a month, moved to the Hasidof neighborhood near [Kfar Sirkin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kfar_Sirkin "Kfar Sirkin"), where he pretended to be a lawyer named Yisrael Halperin. After the British searched the area but missed the street where his house was located, Begin and his family moved to a new home on a Tel Aviv side street, where he assumed the name Yisrael Sassover and masqueraded as a rabbi. Following the King David Hotel bombing, when the British searched the entire city of Tel Aviv, Begin evaded capture by hiding in a secret compartment in his home.[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-Bell-24) In 1947, he moved to the heart of Tel Aviv and took the identity of Dr. Yonah Koenigshoffer, the name he found on an abandoned passport in a library. In the years following the establishment of the State of Israel, the Irgun's contribution to precipitating British withdrawal became a hotly contested debate as different factions vied for control over the emerging narrative of Israeli independence.[\[27\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-28) Begin resented his portrayal as a belligerent dissident.[\[28\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-29) #### *Altalena Affair* [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Altalena_off_Tel-Aviv_beach.jpg) *Altalena* on fire after being shelled near Tel-Aviv Main article: [Altalena Affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_Affair "Altalena Affair") After the [Israeli Declaration of Independence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Israel) "Declaration of Independence (Israel)") on 14 May 1948 and the start of the [1948 Arab–Israeli War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War "1948 Arab–Israeli War"), Irgun continued to fight alongside Haganah and Lehi. On 15 May 1948, Begin broadcast a speech on radio declaring that the Irgun was finally moving out of its underground status.[\[29\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-30) On 3 June Begin signed an agreement with the provisional government headed by [David Ben-Gurion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion"), where the Irgun agreed to formally disband and to integrate its force with the newly formed [Israel Defense Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") (IDF),[\[30\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-31) but was not truthful of the armaments aboard the [*Altalena*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_Affair "Altalena Affair") as it was scheduled to arrive during the cease-fire ordered by the United Nations and therefore would have put the State of Israel in peril as Britain was adamant the partition of Jewish and Arab Palestine would not occur. This delivery was the smoking gun Britain would need to urge the UN to end the partition action. Intense negotiations between representatives of the [provisional government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_government_of_Israel "Provisional government of Israel") (headed by Ben-Gurion) and the Irgun (headed by Begin) followed the departure of *Altalena* from France. Among the issues discussed were logistics of the ship's landing and distribution of the cargo between the military organizations. Whilst there was agreement on the anchoring place of the *Altalena*, there were differences of opinion about the allocation of the cargo. Ben-Gurion agreed to Begin's initial request that 20% of the weapons be dispatched to the Irgun's Jerusalem Battalion, which was still fighting independently. His second request, however, that the remainder be transferred to the IDF to equip the newly incorporated Irgun battalions, was rejected by the Government representatives, who interpreted the request as a demand to reinforce an "army within an army." The *Altalena* reached Kfar Vitkin in the late afternoon of Sunday, 20 June. Among the Irgun members waiting on the shore was Menachem Begin, who greeted the arrivals with great emotion. After the passengers had disembarked, members of the fishing village of [Mikhmoret](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhmoret "Mikhmoret") helped unload the cargo of military equipment. Concomitantly with the events at Kfar Vitkin, the government had convened in Tel Aviv for its weekly meeting. Ben-Gurion reported on the meetings which had preceded the arrival of the *Altalena*, and was adamant in his demand that Begin surrender and hand over all of the weapons: > We must decide whether to hand over power to Begin or to order him to cease his separate activities. If he does not do so, we will open fire! Otherwise, we must decide to disperse our own army. The debate ended in a resolution to empower the army to use force if necessary to overcome the Irgun and to confiscate the ship and its cargo. Implementation of this decision was assigned to the Alexandroni Brigade, commanded by [Dan Even](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Even?action=edit&redlink=1 "Dan Even (page does not exist)") \[[he](https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%9F%20%D7%90%D7%91%D7%9F "he:דן אבן")\] (Epstein), which the following day surrounded the Kfar Vitkin area. Dan Even issued the following ultimatum: > To: M. Begin > By special order from the Chief of the General Staff of the Israel Defense Forces, I am empowered to confiscate the weapons and military materials which have arrived on the Israeli coast in the area of my jurisdiction in the name of the Israel Government. I have been authorized to demand that you hand over the weapons to me for safekeeping and to inform you that you should establish contact with the supreme command. You are required to carry out this order immediately. If you do not agree to carry out this order, I shall use all the means at my disposal in order to implement the order and to requisition the weapons which have reached shore and transfer them from private possession into the possession of the Israel government. I wish to inform you that the entire area is surrounded by fully armed military units and armored cars, and all roads are blocked. I hold you fully responsible for any consequences in the event of your refusal to carry out this order. The immigrants – unarmed – will be permitted to travel to the camps in accordance with your arrangements. You have ten minutes to give me your answer. > D.E., Brigade Commander The ultimatum was made, according to Even, "in order not to give the Irgun commander time for lengthy considerations and to gain the advantage of surprise." Begin refused to respond to the ultimatum, and all attempts at mediation failed. Begin's failure to respond was a blow to Even's prestige, and a clash was now inevitable. Fighting ensued and there were a number of casualties. In order to prevent further bloodshed, the Kfar Vitkin settlers initiated negotiations between [Yaakov Meridor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaakov_Meridor "Yaakov Meridor") (Begin's deputy) and [Dan Even](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Even?action=edit&redlink=1 "Dan Even (page does not exist)"), which ended in a general ceasefire and the transfer of the weapons on shore to the local IDF commander. [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atalena_crew.jpg) Some of the crew of the *Altalena*. Bottom row center is Captain Monroe Fein. Begin had meanwhile boarded the *Altalena*, which was headed for Tel Aviv where the Irgun had more supporters. Many Irgun members, who joined the IDF earlier that month, left their bases and concentrated on the Tel Aviv beach. A confrontation between them and the IDF units started. In response, Ben-Gurion ordered [Yigael Yadin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yigael_Yadin "Yigael Yadin") (acting Chief of Staff) to concentrate large forces on the Tel Aviv beach and to take the ship by force. Heavy guns were transferred to the area and at four in the afternoon, Ben-Gurion ordered the shelling of the *Altalena*. One of the shells hit the ship, which began to burn. [Yigal Allon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yigal_Allon "Yigal Allon"), commander of the troops on the shore, later claimed only five or six shells were fired, as warning shots, and the ship was hit by accident.[\[31\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-32) There was danger that the fire would spread to the holds which contained explosives, and Captain [Monroe Fein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_Fein "Monroe Fein") ordered all aboard to abandon ship. People jumped into the water, whilst their comrades on shore set out to meet them on rafts. Although Captain Fein flew the white flag of surrender, automatic fire continued to be directed at the unarmed survivors swimming in the water.\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] Begin, who was on deck, agreed to leave the ship only after the last of the wounded had been evacuated. Sixteen Irgun fighters were killed in the confrontation with the army (all but three were veteran members and not newcomers in the ship); six were killed in the Kfar Vitkin area and ten on Tel Aviv beach. Three IDF soldiers were killed: two at Kfar Vitkin and one in Tel Aviv.[\[32\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-33)[\[33\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-34)[\[34\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-35) After the shelling of the *Altalena*, more than 200 Irgun fighters were arrested. Most of them were released several weeks later, with the exception of five senior commanders (Moshe Hason, [Eliyahu Lankin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliyahu_Lankin "Eliyahu Lankin"), [Yaakov Meridor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaakov_Meridor "Yaakov Meridor"), [Bezalel Amitzur](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezalel_Amitzur?action=edit&redlink=1 "Bezalel Amitzur (page does not exist)"), and [Hillel Kook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillel_Kook "Hillel Kook")), who were detained for more than two months, until 27 August 1948. Begin agreed the Irgun soldiers would be fully integrated with the IDF and not kept in separate units. About a year later, *Altalena* was refloated, towed 15 miles out to sea and sunk.[\[35\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-Altalena_PalYam-36) ## Political career [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menachem_Begin_p%C5%99i_projevu_v_srpnu_1948.jpg) Begin; August 1948 ### Herut opposition years In August 1948, Begin and members of the Irgun High Command emerged from the underground and formed the right-wing political party [Herut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herut "Herut") ("Freedom") party.[\[36\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-37) The move countered the weakening attraction for the earlier [revisionist party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism "Revisionist Zionism"), [Hatzohar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatzohar "Hatzohar"), founded by his late mentor [Ze'ev Jabotinsky](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ze'ev_Jabotinsky "Ze'ev Jabotinsky"). Revisionist 'purists' alleged nonetheless that Begin was out to steal Jabotinsky's mantle and ran against him with the old party. The Herut party can be seen as the forerunner of today's [Likud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likud "Likud"). In November 1948, Begin visited the US on a campaigning trip. During his visit, [a letter](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/New%20Palestine%20Party;%20Visit%20of%20Menachen%20Begin%20and%20Aims%20of%20Political%20Movement%20Discussed "s:New Palestine Party; Visit of Menachen Begin and Aims of Political Movement Discussed") signed by [Albert Einstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein "Albert Einstein"), [Sidney Hook](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Hook "Sidney Hook"), [Hannah Arendt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah_Arendt "Hannah Arendt"), and other prominent Americans and several rabbis was published which described Begin's Herut party as "terrorist, right-wing chauvinist organization in Palestine,"[\[37\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-38) "closely akin in its organization, methods, political philosophy and social appeal to the [Nazi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi "Nazi") and Fascist parties" and accused his group (along with the smaller, militant, [Stern Gang](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern_Gang "Stern Gang")) of preaching "racial superiority" and having "inaugurated a reign of terror in the Palestine Jewish community".[\[38\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-39)[\[39\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-40) In the [first elections in 1949](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949_Israeli_legislative_election "1949 Israeli legislative election"), Herut, with 11.5 percent of the vote, won 14 seats, while Hatzohar failed to break the threshold and disbanded shortly thereafter. This provided Begin with legitimacy as the leader of the Revisionist stream of Zionism. During the 1950s, Begin was banned from entering the [United Kingdom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), as the British government regarded him as "leader of the notorious terrorist organisation Irgun."[\[4\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-haaretz7jul11-5) Begin's disappointment at the result of the [1951 Israeli legislative election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1951_Israeli_legislative_election "1951 Israeli legislative election"), in which Herut lost six of its 14 seats, led Begin to resign as Herut leader in August 1951, and naming [Aryeh Ben-Eliezer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryeh_Ben-Eliezer "Aryeh Ben-Eliezer") as his successor. Despite sending the party his resignation letter and going abroad to Europe, the party's national council voted instead to make Ben-Eliezer deputy chairman and grant Begin a six-month [leave of absence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_of_absence "Leave of absence"), while re-electing him as party chairman. Begin did not return to public life until January 1952, prompted to do so by the growing debate around the [Reparations Agreement between Israel and the Federal Republic of Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reparations_Agreement_between_Israel_and_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany "Reparations Agreement between Israel and the Federal Republic of Germany") as well as by Ben-Eliezer being hospitalized due to a serious heart attack in December 1951.[\[40\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-41) Between 1948 and 1977, under Begin, Herut and the alliances it formed ([Gahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gahal "Gahal") in 1965 and [Likud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likud "Likud") in 1973) formed the main opposition to the dominant [Mapai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapai "Mapai") and later the [Alignment](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alignment_(political_party) "Alignment (political party)") (the forerunners of today's [Labor Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_Party_(Israel) "Labor Party (Israel)")) in the [Knesset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knesset "Knesset"); Herut adopted a radical nationalistic agenda committed to the [irredentist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irredentism "Irredentism") idea of [Greater Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Israel "Greater Israel") that usually included [Jordan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan "Jordan").[\[41\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-42) During those years, Begin was systematically delegitimized by the ruling party, and was often personally derided by [Ben-Gurion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion") who refused to either speak to or refer to him by name. Ben-Gurion famously coined the phrase 'without Herut and [Maki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maki_(historical_political_party) "Maki (historical political party)")' (Maki was the [communist party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_party "Communist party")), referring to his refusal to consider them for coalition, effectively pushing both parties and their voters beyond the margins of political consensus. The personal animosity between Ben-Gurion and Begin, going back to the hostilities over the [*Altalena* Affair](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altalena_Affair "Altalena Affair"), underpinned the political dichotomy between Mapai and Herut. Begin was a keen critic of Mapai, accusing it of [coercive](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercion "Coercion") [Bolshevism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevism "Bolshevism") and deep-rooted [institutional corruption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_corruption "Institutional corruption"). Drawing on his training as a lawyer in Poland, he preferred wearing a formal suit and tie and evincing the dry demeanor of a legislator to the socialist informality of Mapai, as a means of accentuating their differences. One of the fiercest confrontations between Begin and Ben-Gurion revolved around the [Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reparations_Agreement_between_Israel_and_West_Germany "Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany"), signed in 1952. Begin vehemently opposed the agreement, claiming that it was tantamount to a pardon of Nazi crimes against the Jewish people.[\[42\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-43) While the agreement was debated in the [Knesset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knesset "Knesset") in January 1952, he led a demonstration in [Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") attended by some 15,000 people, and gave a passionate and dramatic speech in which he attacked the government and called for its violent overthrow. Referring to the Altalena Affair, Begin stated that "when you fired at me with a cannon, I gave the order: 'No!' Today I will give the order, 'Yes!'"[\[43\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-44) Incited by his speech, the crowd marched towards the Knesset (then at the Frumin Building on King George Street) and threw stones at the windows, and at police as they intervened. After five hours of rioting, police managed to suppress the riots using water cannons and tear gas. Hundreds were arrested, while some 200 rioters, 140 police officers, and several Knesset members were injured. Many held Begin personally responsible for the violence, and he was consequently barred from the Knesset for several months. His behavior was strongly condemned in mainstream public discourse, reinforcing his image as a provocateur. The vehemence of Revisionist opposition was deep; in March 1952, during the ongoing reparations negotiations, a parcel bomb addressed to [Konrad Adenauer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer "Konrad Adenauer"), the sitting [West German](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany "West Germany") [Chancellor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany_(Federal_Republic_of_Germany) "Chancellor of Germany (Federal Republic of Germany)"), was intercepted at a German post office. While being defused, the bomb exploded, killing one [sapper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapper "Sapper") and injuring two others. Five Israelis, all former members of Irgun, were later arrested in Paris for their involvement in the plot. Chancellor Adenauer decided to keep secret the involvement of Israeli opposition party members in the plot, thus avoiding Israeli embarrassment and a likely backlash. The five Irgun conspirators were later extradited from both France and Germany, without charge, and sent back to Israel. Forty years after the assassination attempt, Begin was implicated as the organizer of the assassination attempt in a memoir written by one of the conspirators, Elieser Sudit.[\[44\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-45)[\[45\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-46)[\[46\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-47)[\[47\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-48) Begin's impassioned rhetoric, laden with pathos and evocations of the Holocaust, appealed to many, but was deemed inflammatory and [demagoguery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demagoguery "Demagoguery") by others. ### Gahal and unity government In the following years, Begin failed to gain electoral momentum, and Herut remained far behind [Labor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_Party_(Israel) "Labor Party (Israel)") with a total of 17 seats until 1961. In the [1965 Israeli legislative election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965_Israeli_legislative_election "1965 Israeli legislative election"), Herut and the [Liberal Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Israel) "Liberal Party (Israel)") united to form the [Gahal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gahal "Gahal") bloc under Begin's leadership, but the merger prompted several Liberal MKs to split and form the [Independent Liberals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Liberals_(Israel) "Independent Liberals (Israel)") and Gahal failed to gain seats in the election, or make up the seats it lost from the Independent Liberal defection. In 1966, during Herut's party convention, he was challenged by the young [Ehud Olmert](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehud_Olmert "Ehud Olmert"). The opposition group within Herut, however, sensed that Begin's leadership position was too strong to challenge directly and concentrated on winning control over the party organization. They won overwhelming victories in all votes for the composition of party institutions. Begin responded to these challenges by announcing his retirement as party chairman and suggesting he would also resign seat in the Knesset. Begin's move mobilized delegates in support of him, but the party convention ended without a party chairman being elected; the chair would be vacant for eight months. Internal opposition to Begin' leadership came to a head a month after the convention, when Haim Amsterdam, an assistant to one of the opposition leaders, [Shmuel Tamir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shmuel_Tamir "Shmuel Tamir"), published a devastating attack on Begin in [*Ha'aretz*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha'aretz "Ha'aretz");[\[48\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-49) this led to the suspension of Tamir's party membership.[\[49\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-50) The leaders of the opposition then established a new party in the Knesset, the [Free Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Center "Free Center"), with the loss of three seats for Herut. After this revolt, Begin reversed his decision to retire and returned as party chairman in February 1967.[\[50\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-51)[\[51\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-52)[\[52\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-weitz-53) The day the [Six-Day War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War") started in June 1967, Gahal joined the [national unity government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_unity_government "National unity government") under Prime Minister [Levi Eshkol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Eshkol "Levi Eshkol") of the Alignment, resulting in Begin serving in the [cabinet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_Israel "Cabinet of Israel") for the first time, as a [Minister without Portfolio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_without_Portfolio "Minister without Portfolio"). [Rafi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafi_(political_party) "Rafi (political party)") also joined the unity government at that time, with [Moshe Dayan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Dayan "Moshe Dayan") becoming Defense Minister. Gahal's arrangement lasted until August 1970, when Begin and Gahal quit the government, then led by [Golda Meir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golda_Meir "Golda Meir") due to disagreements over the [Rogers Plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers_Plan "Rogers Plan") and its "in place" cease-fire with Egypt along the Suez Canal,[\[53\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-54) Other sources, including [William B. Quandt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_B._Quandt "William B. Quandt"), note that the Labor party, by formally accepting [UN 242](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_242 "UN 242") in mid-1970, had accepted "peace for withdrawal" on all fronts, and because of this Begin had left the unity government. On 5 August, Begin explained before the Knesset why he was resigning from the cabinet. He said, "As far as we are concerned, what do the words 'withdrawal from territories administered since 1967 by Israel' mean other than Judea and Samaria. Not all the territories; but by all opinion, most of them."[\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-55) ### Likud chairmanship [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_(GPO)_-_Begin_in_the_Knesset.jpg) Begin addressing the Knesset in 1974 In 1973, Begin agreed to a plan by [Ariel Sharon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Sharon "Ariel Sharon") to form a larger bloc of opposition parties, made up from Gahal, the [Free Centre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Centre "Free Centre"), and other smaller groups. They came through with a tenuous alliance called the [Likud](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likud "Likud") ("Consolidation"). In the elections held later that year, two months after the [Yom Kippur War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War "Yom Kippur War"), the Likud won a considerable share of the votes, though with 39 seats still remained in opposition.\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] Yet the aftermath of the Yom Kippur War saw ensuing public disenchantment with the Alignment. Voices of criticism about the government's misconduct of the war gave rise to growing public resentment. Personifying the antithesis to the Alignment's socialist ethos, Begin appealed to many [Mizrahi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews "Mizrahi Jews") Israelis, mostly first and second generation [Jewish refugees from Arab countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_lands "Jewish exodus from Arab lands"), who felt they were continuously being treated by the establishment as second-class citizens. His open embrace of Judaism stood in stark contrast to the Alignment's secularism, which alienated Mizrahi voters and drew many of them to support Begin, becoming his burgeoning political base. In the years 1974–77 [Yitzhak Rabin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin "Yitzhak Rabin")'s government suffered from instability due to infighting within the labor party (Rabin and [Shimon Peres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimon_Peres "Shimon Peres")) and the shift to the right by the National Religious Party, as well as numerous corruption scandals. All these weakened the labor camp and finally allowed Begin to capture the center stage of Israeli politics.\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] In 1977 Begin declared that "between [the \[Mediterranean\] Sea and the Jordan River](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_the_river_to_the_sea "From the river to the sea") there shall only be Israeli sovereignty".[\[55\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-56) #### Prime Minister of Israel #### 1977 electoral victory [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menachem_Begin_1978.jpg) Menachem Begin in 1978 Main article: [1977 Israeli legislative election](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977_Israeli_legislative_election "1977 Israeli legislative election") On 17 May 1977, the Likud, headed by Begin, won the [Knesset elections](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977_Israeli_legislative_election "1977 Israeli legislative election") by a landslide, becoming the biggest party in the [Knesset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knesset "Knesset"). Popularly known as the *Mahapakh* ("upheaval"), the election results had seismic ramifications as for the first time in Israeli history a party other than the Alignment/Mapai could form a government, effectively ending the left's hitherto unrivalled domination over Israeli politics. Likud's electoral victory signified a fundamental restructuring of Israeli society in which the founding socialist Ashkenazi elite was being replaced by a coalition representing marginalized [Mizrahi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews "Mizrahi Jews") and Jewish-religious communities, promoting a socially conservative and [economically liberal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_liberalism "Economic liberalism") agenda. [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menachem_Begin_and_Moshe_Dayan_exits_from_an_aircraft.JPEG) Begin and [Moshe Dayan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Dayan "Moshe Dayan") exit from an aircraft at [Andrews Air Force Base](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews_Air_Force_Base "Andrews Air Force Base"), [Maryland](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland "Maryland"), United States The Likud campaign leading up to the election centered on Begin's personality. Demonized by the Alignment as [totalitarian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarian "Totalitarian") and extremist, his self-portrayal as a humble and pious leader struck a chord with many who felt abandoned by the ruling party's ideology. In the predominantly [Mizrahi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews "Mizrahi Jews") working class urban neighborhoods and peripheral towns, the Likud won overwhelming majorities, while disillusionment with the Alignment's corruption prompted many middle and upper class voters to support the newly founded [centrist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrism "Centrism") [Democratic Movement for Change](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Movement_for_Change "Democratic Movement for Change") ("Dash") headed by [Yigael Yadin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yigael_Yadin "Yigael Yadin"). Dash won 15 seats out of 120, largely at the expense of the Alignment, which was led by [Shimon Peres](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimon_Peres "Shimon Peres") and had shrunk from 51 to 32 seats. Well aware of his momentous achievement and employing his trademark sense for drama, when speaking that night in the Likud headquarters Begin quoted from the [Gettysburg Address](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettysburg_Address "Gettysburg Address") and the [Torah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah "Torah"), referring to his victory as a 'turning point in the history of the Jewish people'. With 43 seats, the Likud still required the support of other parties in order to reach a parliamentary majority that would enable it to form a government under [Israel's proportionate representation parliamentary system](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Israel "Politics of Israel"). Though able to form a narrow coalition with smaller Jewish religious and [ultra-orthodox](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haredi_Judaism "Haredi Judaism") parties, Begin also sought support from centrist elements in the Knesset to provide his government with greater public legitimacy. He controversially offered the foreign affairs portfolio to [Moshe Dayan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Dayan "Moshe Dayan"), a former [IDF Chief of Staff](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramatkal "Ramatkal") and [Defense Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Minister_of_Israel "Defense Minister of Israel"), and a prominent Alignment politician identified with the old establishment. Dash eventually joined his government several months later, thus providing it with the broad support of almost two thirds of the Knesset. While prime ministerial adviser, [Yehuda Avner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehuda_Avner "Yehuda Avner"), served as Begin's speech writer. On 19 June 1977, Likud signed a coalition agreement with the [National Religious Party](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Religious_Party "National Religious Party") (which held twelve seats) and the [Agudat Yisrael](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agudat_Yisrael "Agudat Yisrael") party. Without defections, the coalition of Likud and these two parties created the narrowest-possible majority in a full Knesset (61 seats).[\[56\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-57) After eight hours of debate, Begin's government was officially approved in a Knesset vote on 21 June 1977, making him the new [prime minister of Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_minister_of_Israel "Prime minister of Israel").[\[57\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-58) ### Socioeconomic policies [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_(GPO)_-_Menahem_Begin_with_Ariel_Sharon.jpg) Prime Minister Menahem Begin (left) meets with Agriculture Minister [Ariel Sharon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Sharon "Ariel Sharon") at the Prime Minister's Office in Jerusalem. August 1977 As Prime Minister, Begin presided over various reforms in the domestic field. Tuition fees for secondary education were eliminated and compulsory education was extended to the tenth grade,[\[58\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-59) while new social programmes were introduced such as long-term care insurance[\[59\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-60) and a national income support system.[\[60\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-61) A [ban on color television](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_in_Israel "Television in Israel") that had been imposed to enforce social equality was abolished, and the minimum age for a driver's license was lowered to 17.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-benn-62) Begin's economic policies sought to liberalize Israel's [socialist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism "Socialism") economy towards a more free-market approach, and he appointed [Simha Erlich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simha_Erlich "Simha Erlich") as Finance Minister. Erlich unveiled a new economic policy that became known as the "economic transformation". Under the new plan, the exchange rate would from then on be determined by market forces rather than the government, subsidies for many consumer products were cancelled, [foreign exchange controls](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_exchange_controls "Foreign exchange controls") were eased, the [VAT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_added_tax "Value added tax") tax was raised while the travel tax was cancelled, and customs duties were lowered to encourage imports of more products. The plan generated some improvement; cheap and high-quality imported products began to fill consumer shelves, the business sector benefited greatly, and the stock market recorded rising share prices. However, the program did not improve the lives of the Israeli people as Begin had hoped. The combination of the increased VAT, the end of subsidies, and a rise in the U.S. dollar exchange rate set off a wave of inflation and price increases. In particular, the fact that government spending was not significantly reduced in tandem with the liberalization program triggered a massive bout of inflation. On 17 July 1978, the Israeli cabinet met to discuss rising inflation, but Begin, declaring that "you cannot manage economics over the housewife's back", halted all proposals. In the end, the government decided not to take any actions and allow inflation to ride its course. Begin and his other ministers did not internalize the full meaning of the liberalization plan. As a result, he blocked attempts by Erlich to lower government spending and government plans to privatize public-sector enterprises out of fear of harming the weaker sectors of society, allowing the privatization of only eighteen government companies during his six-year tenure.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-benn-62)[\[62\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-63) In 1983, shortly before Begin's resignation, a major [financial crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983_Israel_bank_stock_crisis "1983 Israel bank stock crisis") hit Israel after the stocks of the country's four largest banks collapsed and were subsequently nationalized by the state. Inflation would continue rapidly rising past Begin's tenure, and was only brought under control after the [1985 Israel Economic Stabilization Plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_Israel_Economic_Stabilization_Plan "1985 Israel Economic Stabilization Plan"), which among other things greatly curbed government spending, was introduced. The years of rampant inflation devastated the economic power of the powerful [Histadrut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histadrut "Histadrut") labor federation and the [kibbutzim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibbutz "Kibbutz"), which would help Israel's approach towards a free-market economy.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-benn-62) Begin's government has been credited with starting a trend that would move Israel towards a capitalist economy that would see the rise of a consumer culture and a pursuit of wealth and higher living standards, replacing a culture that scorned capitalism and valued social, as well as government restrictions to enforce equality.[\[61\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-benn-62) In terms of social justice, however, the legacy of the Begin Government was arguably a questionable one. In 1980, the state Social Security Institute estimated that from 1977 to 1980 the number of babies born in poverty doubled, while there had been a 300% increase in the number of families with four to five children below the poverty line. Additionally, the number of families with more than five children below the poverty line went up by 400,% while child poverty estimates suggested that from 1977 to 1981 the number of children living below the poverty line had risen from 3.8% to 8.4%,[\[63\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-64) while officials at the National Institute of Insurance estimated that the incidence of poverty had doubled during Begin's five years in office.[\[64\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-65) #### Camp David accords [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sadat_and_Begin_clean3.jpg) Egyptian President [Anwar Sadat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anwar_Sadat "Anwar Sadat") and Menachem Begin acknowledge applause during a joint session of Congress in Washington, D.C., during which President [Jimmy Carter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter") announced the results of the [Camp David Accords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_David_Accords "Camp David Accords"), 18 September 1978. [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Begin_Brzezinski_Camp_David_Chess.jpg) Prime Minister Menachem Begin engages [Zbigniew Brzezinski](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski "Zbigniew Brzezinski") in a game of [chess](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess "Chess") at [Camp David](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_David "Camp David"), 1978. In 1978, Begin, aided by Foreign Minister [Moshe Dayan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Dayan "Moshe Dayan") and Defense Minister [Ezer Weizman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezer_Weizman "Ezer Weizman"), came to Washington and Camp David to negotiate the [Camp David Accords](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_David_Accords_(1978) "Camp David Accords (1978)"), leading to the 1979 [Egypt–Israel peace treaty](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_peace_treaty "Egypt–Israel peace treaty") with Egyptian President, [Anwar Sadat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anwar_Sadat "Anwar Sadat"). Before going to Washington to meet President Carter, Begin visited Rabbi [Menachem M. Schneerson](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_M._Schneerson "Menachem M. Schneerson") for his advice.[\[65\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-66) Under the terms of the treaty, brokered by US President [Jimmy Carter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter "Jimmy Carter"), Israel was to hand over the [Sinai Peninsula](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula "Sinai Peninsula") in its entirety to Egypt. The peace treaty with Egypt was a watershed moment in Middle Eastern history, as it was the first time an [Arab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab "Arab") state recognized Israel's legitimacy whereas Israel effectively accepted the [land for peace](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_for_peace "Land for peace") principle as blueprint for resolving the [Arab–Israeli conflict](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict "Arab–Israeli conflict"). Given Egypt's prominent position within the [Arab World](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_World "Arab World"), especially as Israel's biggest and most powerful enemy, the treaty had far reaching strategic and [geopolitical](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitics "Geopolitics") implications. Almost overnight, Begin's public image of an irresponsible nationalist radical was transformed into that of a statesman of historic proportions. This image was reinforced by international recognition which culminated with him being awarded, together with Sadat, the [Nobel Peace Prize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize "Nobel Peace Prize") in 1978. Yet while establishing Begin as a leader with broad public appeal, the peace treaty with Egypt was met with fierce criticism within his own Likud party. His devout followers found it difficult to reconcile Begin's history as a keen promoter of the [Greater Israel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Israel "Greater Israel") agenda with his willingness to relinquish occupied territory. Agreeing to the removal of [Israeli settlements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_settlements "Israeli settlements") from the Sinai was perceived by many as a clear departure from Likud's [Revisionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism "Revisionist Zionism") ideology. Several prominent Likud members, most notably [Yitzhak Shamir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir "Yitzhak Shamir"), objected to the treaty and abstained when it was ratified with an overwhelming majority in the Knesset, achieved only thanks to support from the opposition. A small group of hardliners within Likud, associated with [Gush Emunim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gush_Emunim "Gush Emunim") Jewish settlement movement, eventually decided to split and form the [Tehiya](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehiya "Tehiya") party in 1979. They led the *Movement for Stopping the Withdrawal from Sinai*, violently clashing with IDF soldiers during the forceful eviction of [Yamit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamit "Yamit") settlement in April 1982. Despite the traumatic scenes from Yamit, political support for the treaty did not diminish and the Sinai was handed over to Egypt in 1982. [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_Torah_Scroll_was_placed_in_the_provional_synagogue_of_the_new_settlement_of_Kadum_in_Samaria_in_the_presence_of_right_wing_movements_members,_including_Likud_leader_Menachem_Begin_(FL45805873).jpg) A Torah Scroll placed in the provional synagogue of [Kedumim](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedumim "Kedumim") Jewish settlement, in the presence of Likud leader Menachem Begin, 25 May 1977 Begin was less resolute in implementing the section of the Camp David Accord calling for [Palestinian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_people "Palestinian people") self-rule in the [West Bank](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bank "West Bank") and [Gaza Strip](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaza_Strip "Gaza Strip"). He appointed [Agriculture Minister](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_Minister_of_Israel "Agriculture Minister of Israel") [Ariel Sharon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Sharon "Ariel Sharon") to implement a large scale expansion of Jewish settlements in the [Israeli-occupied territories](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli-occupied_territories "Israeli-occupied territories"), a policy intended to make future territorial concessions in these areas effectively impossible.\[[**citation needed**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed "Wikipedia:Citation needed")\] Begin refocused Israeli settlement strategy from populating peripheral areas in accordance with the [Allon Plan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allon_Plan "Allon Plan"), to building Jewish settlements in areas of Biblical and historic significance. When the settlement of [Elon Moreh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elon_Moreh "Elon Moreh") was established on the outskirts of [Nablus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nablus "Nablus") in 1979, following years of campaigning by Gush Emunim, Begin declared that there are "many more Elon Morehs to come." During his term dozens of new settlements were built, and Jewish population in the West Bank and Gaza more than quadrupled. #### Bombing Iraqi nuclear reactor Main articles: [Operation Opera](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Opera "Operation Opera") and [Begin Doctrine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begin_Doctrine "Begin Doctrine") [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menachem_Begin_at_UN_General_Assembly_(1982).jpg) Begin speaking at the [United Nations General Assembly](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly "United Nations General Assembly") (1982) Begin took [Saddam Hussein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddam_Hussein "Saddam Hussein")'s [anti-Zionist](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Zionism "Anti-Zionism") threats seriously and therefore took aim at [Iraq](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq "Iraq"), which was building a [nuclear reactor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor "Nuclear reactor") named Osirak or Tammuz 1 with [French](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France "France") and [Italian](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy "Italy") assistance. When Begin took office, preparations were intensified. Begin authorized the construction of a full-scale model of the Iraqi reactor which Israeli pilots could practice bombing.[\[66\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-67) Israel attempted to negotiate with France and Italy to cut off assistance and with the United States to obtain assurances that the program would be halted. The negotiations failed. Begin considered the diplomatic option fruitless, and worried that prolonging the attack would lead to a fatal inability to act in response to the perceived threat. The decision to attack was hotly contested within Begin's government.[\[67\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-68) However, in October 1980, the [Mossad](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossad "Mossad") informed Begin that the reactor would be fueled and operational by June 1981. This assessment was aided by reconnaissance photos supplied by the United States, and the [Israeli cabinet](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_Israel "Cabinet of Israel") voted to approve an attack.[\[68\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-69) In June 1981, Begin ordered the destruction of the reactor. On 7 June 1981, the [Israeli Air Force](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_Air_Force "Israeli Air Force") destroyed the reactor in a successful long-range operation called [*Operation Opera*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Opera "Operation Opera").[\[69\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-name_of_reference_goes_here-70) Soon after, the government and Begin expounded on what came to be known as the [Begin Doctrine](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begin_Doctrine "Begin Doctrine"): "On no account shall we permit an enemy to develop [weapons of mass destruction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction "Weapons of mass destruction") (WMD) against the people of Israel." Begin explicitly stated the strike was not an anomaly, but instead called the event "a precedent for every future government in Israel"; it remains a feature of Israeli security planning policy.[\[70\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-71) Many foreign governments, including the United States, condemned the operation, and the [United Nations Security Council](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council "United Nations Security Council") unanimously passed [Resolution 487](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_487 "United Nations Security Council Resolution 487") condemning it. The Israeli left-wing opposition criticized it also at the time, but mainly for its timing relative to domestic elections only three weeks later, when Likud was reelected.[\[71\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-72) The new government [annexed the Golan Heights](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golan_Heights_Law "Golan Heights Law") and banned the [national airline](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Al "El Al") from flying on [Shabbat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbat "Shabbat").[\[72\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-shabbat-73) #### Lebanon invasion Main article: [1982 Lebanon War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War "1982 Lebanon War") [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D7%91%D7%92%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%91%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8.jpg) Menachem Begin and Ariel Sharon at the [Beaufort Castle, Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaufort_Castle,_Lebanon "Beaufort Castle, Lebanon") after its [capture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Beaufort "Battle of the Beaufort") by IDF forces in June 1982 On 6 June 1982, Begin's government authorized the [Israel Defense Forces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") [invasion of Lebanon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Invasion_of_Lebanon "1982 Invasion of Lebanon"), in response to the attempted assassination of the Israeli ambassador to the United Kingdom, [Shlomo Argov](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shlomo_Argov "Shlomo Argov"). The objective of Operation *Peace for Galilee* was to force the [PLO](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLO "PLO") out of rocket range of Israel's northern border. Begin was hoping for a short and limited Israeli involvement that would destroy the PLO's political and military infrastructure in southern Lebanon, effectively reshaping the balance of Lebanese power in favor of the Christian Militias who were allied with Israel. Nevertheless, fighting soon escalated into war with Palestinian and Lebanese militias, as well as the Syrian military, and the IDF progressed as far as [Beirut](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut "Beirut"), well beyond the 40 km limit initially authorized by the government. Israeli forces were successful in driving the PLO out of Lebanon and forcing its leadership to relocate to Tunisia, but the war ultimately failed to achieve its political goals of bringing security to Israel's northern border and creating stability in Lebanon. Begin referred to the invasion as an inevitable act of survival, often comparing [Yasser Arafat](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasser_Arafat "Yasser Arafat") to [Hitler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler"). #### Sabra and Shatila massacre Public dissatisfaction reached a peak in September 1982, after the [Sabra and Shatila Massacre](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_Massacre "Sabra and Shatila Massacre"). Hundreds of thousands gathered in [Tel Aviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") in what was one of the biggest public demonstrations in Israeli history. The [Kahan Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahan_Commission "Kahan Commission"), appointed to investigate the events, issued its report on 9 February 1983, found the government indirectly responsible for the massacre but that Defense Minister [Ariel Sharon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Sharon "Ariel Sharon") "bears personal responsibility." The commission recommended that Sharon be removed from office and never serve in any future Israeli government. Initially, Sharon attempted to remain in office and Begin refused to fire him. But Sharon resigned as Defense Minister after the death of [Emil Grunzweig](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Grunzweig "Emil Grunzweig"), who was killed by a grenade tossed into a crowd of demonstrators leaving a [Peace Now](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_Now "Peace Now") organized march, which also injured ten others, including the son of an Israeli cabinet minister. Sharon remained in the cabinet as a minister without portfolio. Public pressure on Begin to resign increased.[\[73\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-74) Begin's disoriented appearance on national television while visiting the [Beaufort battle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Beaufort_(1982) "Battle of the Beaufort (1982)") site raised concerns that he was being misinformed about the war's progress. Asking Sharon whether PLO fighters had 'machine guns', Begin seemed out of touch with the nature and scale of the military campaign he had authorized. Almost a decade later, [*Haaretz*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haaretz "Haaretz") reporter [Uzi Benziman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi_Benziman?action=edit&redlink=1 "Uzi Benziman (page does not exist)") published a series of articles accusing Sharon of intentionally deceiving Begin about the operation's initial objectives, and continuously misleading him as the war progressed. Sharon sued both the newspaper and Benziman for [libel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libel "Libel") in 1991. The trial lasted 11 years, with one of the highlights being the deposition of Begin's son, [Benny](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Begin "Benny Begin"), in favor of the defendants. Sharon lost the case.[\[74\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-75) Argentine journalist [Hernan Dobry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hernan_Dobry?action=edit&redlink=1 "Hernan Dobry (page does not exist)") has alleged that during this time Begin also ordered an airlift of weapons to Argentina during the [Falklands War](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falklands_War "Falklands War"), because he still hated the British decades after fighting them in the 1940s, and wanted to avenge the hanging of his friend [Dov Gruner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dov_Gruner "Dov Gruner").[\[75\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-76) #### Resignation After Begin's wife Aliza died in November 1982 while he was away on an official visit to Washington DC, he fell into a deep depression.[\[76\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-77) Begin also became disappointed by the war in Lebanon because he had hoped to sign a peace treaty with the government of President [Bashir Gemayel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashir_Gemayel "Bashir Gemayel"), who was assassinated.[\[77\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-78) Instead, there were mounting Israeli casualties, and protesters outside his office maintained a constant vigil with a sign showing the number of Israeli soldiers killed in Lebanon, which was constantly updated. Begin also continued to be plagued by the ill health and occasional hospitalizations that he had endured for years. In October 1983, he resigned, telling his colleagues that "I cannot go on any longer", and handed over the reins of the office of Prime Minister to his old comrade-in-arms [Yitzhak Shamir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir "Yitzhak Shamir"), who had been the leader of the [Lehi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(group) "Lehi (group)") resistance to the British.[\[78\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-79) #### Tertiated Begin, in his first meeting with President Carter, used the word **tertiated** to describe how, during the *Holocaust* one in three Jews, of the worldwide Jewish population, were murdered.[\[79\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-80) When Carter asked "What was that word, Mr. Prime Minister?" Begin compared it to the Roman army term [*Decimation*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimation_(punishment) "Decimation (punishment)") and then added "one in three – tertiated!"[\[80\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-81) Begin elaborated later on: "When I use the word "Tertiated" I mean to say that we do not accept the known term of "Decimation".[\[81\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-82) [Avi Weiss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avi_Weiss "Avi Weiss") highlighted: "But the Holocaust is different" and noted "As Menachem Begin once said, during the Holocaust our people were not decimated, but "*tertiated*" — it was not one in ten, but one in three that were murdered."[\[82\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-83) #### Retirement and seclusion Begin subsequently retired to an apartment overlooking the [Jerusalem Forest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem_Forest "Jerusalem Forest") and spent the rest of his life in seclusion. According to Israeli psychologist [Ofer Grosbard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofer_Grosbard "Ofer Grosbard"), he suffered from clinical depression.[\[83\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-84) He would rarely leave his apartment, and then usually to visit his wife's grave-site to say the traditional [Kaddish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaddish "Kaddish") [prayer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_prayer "Jewish prayer") for the departed. His seclusion was watched over by his children and his personal secretary Yechiel Kadishai, who monitored all official requests for meetings. Begin would meet almost no one other than close friends or family. After a year, he changed his telephone number due to journalists constantly calling him. He was cared for by his daughter, Leah, and a housekeeper. According to Kadishai, Begin spent most of his days reading and watching movies, and would start and finish a book almost every day. He also kept up with world events by continuing his lifelong habit of listening to the [BBC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC "BBC") every morning, which had begun during his underground days, and maintaining a subscription to several newspapers. Begin retained some clout in the Likud party, which he used to influence it behind the scenes.[\[84\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-85)[\[85\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-86)[\[86\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-87) He broke his hip in a fall in 1990 and underwent surgery at [Shaare Zedek Medical Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaare_Zedek_Medical_Center "Shaare Zedek Medical Center"). Afterwards, doctors recommended moving him to Ichilov Hospital at the [Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Sourasky_Medical_Center "Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center") for rehabilitation. He was released from hospital in March 1991 and subsequently moved to an apartment in the [Afeka](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afeka "Afeka") neighborhood in Tel Aviv. The hospital stay and permanent move to Tel Aviv greatly improved his health and mood and his seclusion somewhat loosened. He gave a telephone interview on the eve of [Passover](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover "Passover") in 1991, as part of a television broadcast marking fifty years since the death of Ze'ev Jabotinsky. He gave another telephone interview in July 1991, which would be the last interview of his life.[\[87\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-88) #### Death [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menachem_Begin_commemorative_plaque.jpg) Commemorative plaque in memory of Menachem Begin in [Brest, Belarus](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brest,_Belarus "Brest, Belarus"); he was born in the city [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tablica_pami%C4%85tkowa_Menachem_Begin_Auditorium_Maximum_UW.JPG) Plaque in memory of Menachem Begin at the Auditorium Maximum, [University of Warsaw](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Warsaw "University of Warsaw"), where he studied law On 3 March 1992, Begin suffered a severe heart attack in his apartment, and was rushed to [Ichilov Hospital](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv_Sourasky_Medical_Center "Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center"), where he was put in the [intensive care unit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_care_unit "Intensive care unit"). Begin arrived there unconscious and paralyzed on the left side of his body. His condition slightly improved following treatment, and he regained consciousness after 20 hours. For the next six days, Begin remained in serious condition. A [pacemaker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacemaker "Pacemaker") was implanted in his chest to stabilize his heartbeat on 5 March.[\[88\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-89) Begin was too frail to overcome the effects of the heart attack, and his condition began to rapidly deteriorate on 9 March at about 3:15 AM. An emergency team of doctors and nurses attempted to resuscitate his failing heart. His children were notified of his condition and immediately rushed to his side. Begin died at 3:30 AM. His death was announced an hour and a half later. Shortly before 6:00 AM, the hospital rabbi arrived at his bedside to say the [Kaddish](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaddish "Kaddish") prayer.[\[89\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-90)[\[90\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-91) Begin's funeral took place in [Jerusalem](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") that afternoon. His coffin was carried four kilometers from the [Sanhedria Funeral Parlor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanhedria_Cemetery#Operation "Sanhedria Cemetery") to [Mount of Olives](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_of_Olives "Mount of Olives") in a funeral procession attended by thousands of people.[\[91\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-92) In accordance with his wishes, Begin was given a simple Jewish burial ceremony rather than a state funeral and buried on the Mount of Olives in the [Jewish Cemetery](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_of_Olives_Jewish_Cemetery "Mount of Olives Jewish Cemetery") there. He had asked to be buried there instead of [Mount Herzl](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Herzl "Mount Herzl"), where most Israeli leaders are laid to rest, because he wanted to be buried beside his wife Aliza, as well as [Meir Feinstein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meir_Feinstein "Meir Feinstein") of [Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun "Irgun") and [Moshe Barazani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Barazani "Moshe Barazani") of [Lehi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehi_(group) "Lehi (group)"), who committed suicide together in jail while awaiting execution by the British.[\[92\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-93) An estimated 75,000 mourners were present at the funeral. Prime Minister [Yitzhak Shamir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir "Yitzhak Shamir"), President [Chaim Herzog](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaim_Herzog "Chaim Herzog"), all cabinet ministers present in Israel, Supreme Court justices, Knesset members from most parties and a number of foreign ambassadors attended the funeral. Former members of the Irgun High Command served as pallbearers.[\[93\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin#cite_note-94) #### Overview of offices held Begin served as prime minister (Israel's [head of government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_government "Head of government")) from 21 June 1977 through 10 October 1983, leading the [18th government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_government_of_Israel "Eighteenth government of Israel") during the [9th Knesset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_ninth_Knesset "List of members of the ninth Knesset") and the [19th government](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteenth_government_of_Israel "Nineteenth government of Israel") during the first portion of the [10th Knesset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_tenth_Knesset "List of members of the tenth Knesset"). Begin was a member of the Knesset from 1949 through until he resigned in 1983. Begin was twice the [Knesset's opposition leader](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_(Israel) "Leader of the Opposition (Israel)") (at the time an unofficial and honorary role). He was first opposition leader from November 1955 through June 1967, holding the role during the entirety of the [3rd](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_third_Knesset "List of members of the third Knesset"), [4th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_fourth_Knesset "List of members of the fourth Knesset"), [5th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_fifth_Knesset "List of members of the fifth Knesset"), and the first portion of the [6th](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_sixth_Knesset "List of members of the sixth Knesset") Knessets, during the second premiership of David Ben-Gurion and the premiership of Levi Eshkol\] He again served as opposition leader from August 1970 through June 1977, during the last portion of the [7th Knesset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_seventh_Knesset "List of members of the seventh Knesset") and entirety of the [8th Knesset](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_eighth_Knesset "List of members of the eighth Knesset"), during which period Golda Meir and Yitzhak Rabin served as prime minister. Begin was the founding leader of Herut, and served as the party's leader until 1983. He was also made leader of the Likud coalition at its founding in 1973, and also held that position until 1983. ### Ministerial posts| Ministerial post | Tenure | Prime Minister(s) | Government(s) | Predecessor | Successor |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [Minister without portfolio](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio "Minister without portfolio") | 5 June 1967 – 10 March 1975 | [Levi Eshkol](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Eshkol "Levi Eshkol") (until 26 February 1969)[Yigal Allon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yigal_Allon "Yigal Allon") (acting 26 February 1969–17 March 1969)[Golda Meir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golda_Meir "Golda Meir") (from 17 March 1969) | [13](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_government_of_Israel "Thirteenth government of Israel") , [14](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_government_of_Israel "Fourteenth government of Israel") , [15](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifteenth_government_of_Israel "Fifteenth government of Israel") | —N/a | —N/a |
| [Minister of Communications](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Communications_(Israel) "Ministry of Communications (Israel)") | 21 June 1977 – 24 October 1977 | *Menachem Begin* | [18](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_government_of_Israel "Eighteenth government of Israel") | [Aharon Uzan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aharon_Uzan "Aharon Uzan") | [Meir Amit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meir_Amit "Meir Amit") |
| [Minister of Justice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Israel) "Ministry of Justice (Israel)") | 21 June 1977 – 24 October 1977 | *Menachem Begin* | 18 | [Moshe Baram](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Baram "Moshe Baram") | [Yisrael Katz](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yisrael_Katz "Yisrael Katz") |
| [Minister of Labour and Social Welfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Labor,_Social_Affairs_and_Social_Services "Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs and Social Services") | 21 June 1977 – 24 October 1977 | *Menachem Begin* | 18 | [Haim Yosef Zadok](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haim_Yosef_Zadok "Haim Yosef Zadok") | [Shmuel Tamir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shmuel_Tamir "Shmuel Tamir") |
| [Minister of Transportation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Transport_and_Road_Safety "Ministry of Transport and Road Safety") | 21 June 1977 – 24 October 1977 | *Menachem Begin* | 18 | [Gad Yaacobi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gad_Yaacobi "Gad Yaacobi") | Meir Amit |
| [Minister of Foreign Affairs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Israel) "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)") | 23 October 1979 – 10 March 1980 | *Menachem Begin* | 18 | [Moshe Dayan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Dayan "Moshe Dayan") | [Yitzhak Shamir](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yitzhak_Shamir "Yitzhak Shamir") |
| [Minister of Defense](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_(Israel) "Ministry of Defense (Israel)") | 28 May 1980 – 5 August 1981 | *Menachem Begin* | 18, [19](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteenth_government_of_Israel "Nineteenth government of Israel") | [Ezer Weizman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezer_Weizman "Ezer Weizman") | [Ariel Sharon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_Sharon "Ariel Sharon") |
| [Minister of Agriculture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Rural_Development_(Israel) "Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Israel)") | 19 June 1983 – 10 October 1983 | *Menachem Begin* | 19 | [Simha Erlich](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simha_Erlich) | [Pesah Grupper](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesah_Grupper "Pesah Grupper") |
| Irgun operational commanders | |
|---|---|
| Period | Commander |
| 1931–1937 | [Avraham Tehomi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avraham_Tehomi "Avraham Tehomi") |
| 1937 | [Robert Bitker](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bitker "Robert Bitker") |
| 1937–1938 | [Moshe Rosenberg](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moshe_Rosenberg "Moshe Rosenberg")[\[23\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun#cite_note-:1-24) |
| 1938–1939 | [David Raziel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Raziel "David Raziel") |
| 1939 | [Hanoch Kalai](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanoch_Kalai "Hanoch Kalai")[\[24\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun#cite_note-:2-25) |
| 1939 | [Benyamin Zeroni](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benyamin_Zeroni?action=edit&redlink=1 "Benyamin Zeroni (page does not exist)")[\[25\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun#cite_note-:3-26) |
| 1939–1941 | [David Raziel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Raziel "David Raziel") |
| 1941–1943 | [Yaakov Meridor](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaakov_Meridor "Yaakov Meridor") |
| 1943–1948 | [Menachem Begin](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menachem_Begin "Menachem Begin") |
| *Note: 1937–1940* [*Jabotinsky*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ze'ev_Jabotinsky "Ze'ev Jabotinsky") *was Supreme Commander of the Irgun* | |
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| The Irgun's Anthem [\[54\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irgun#cite_note-55) |
|---|
| Tagar - Through all obstacles and enemies Whether you go up or down In the flames of revolt Carry a flame to kindle – never mind! For silence is filth Worthless is blood and soul For the sake of the hidden glory To die or to conquer the hill - Yodefet, Masada, Betar. |
| [Executed Members of the Irgun](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olei_Hagardom "Olei Hagardom") |
|---|
| - [Shlomo Ben-Yosef](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shlomo_Ben-Yosef "Shlomo Ben-Yosef") - [Dov Gruner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dov_Gruner "Dov Gruner") - [Mordechai Alkahi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordechai_Alkahi "Mordechai Alkahi") - [Yehiel Dresner](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yehiel_Dresner "Yehiel Dresner") - [Eliezer Kashani](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliezer_Kashani "Eliezer Kashani") - [Yaakov Weiss](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaakov_Weiss "Yaakov Weiss") - [Avshalom Haviv](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avshalom_Haviv "Avshalom Haviv") - [Meir Nakar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meir_Nakar "Meir Nakar") |